CRISTO RAUL.ORG |
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READING HALL THE DOORS OF WISDOM |
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THEFOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE BY WILLIAM I.BASED CHIEFLY UPON PRUSSIAN STATE DOCUMENTS
BY
HEINRICH VON SYBEL
BOOK I. RETROSPECT.I. THE EARLIEST TIMES. II. AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA. III. FOREIGN RULE — WAR OF INDEPENDENCE . IV. FIRST YEARS OF THE DIET. V. INFLUENCE OF THE REVOLUTION OF 18o0. VI. FREDERICK WILLIAM IV BOOK II. FIRST ATTEMPT AT GERMAN UNITY.1. THE MARCH REVOLUTION. 2. THE PARTIES. 3. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AND IMPERIAL REGENT. 4. COMPLICATIONS. BOOK III. FAILURE OF THE PROJECTS FOR GERMAN UNITY.1. SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. 2. THE PARLIAMENT AND THE POWERS. 3. THE QUESTION OF THE SUPREME AUTHORIY. 4. THE CATASTROPHE BOOK IV. THE PRUSSIAN UNION.I. LEAGUE OF THE THREE KINGDOMS. 2. THE COUNTER-LEAGUE. 3 . RUSSIAN INFLUENCE. . THE CRISIS
BOOK V. REVIVAL OF THE CONFEDERATE DIET.
I.COUNT BRANDENBURG IN WARSAW.
BOOK VI.
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Heinrich Karl Ludolf von Sybel (2 December 1817 - 1 August 1895) German historian. Sybel came from a Protestant family which had long been established at Soest. He was born in Düsseldorf, where his father held important posts in the public service under both the French and the Prussians; in 1831 he was raised to the hereditary nobility. His home was one of the centres of the vigorous literary and artistic life for which Düsseldorf was renowned at that time. Sybel was educated at the local Gymnasium, and then at the University of Berlin, where he came under the influences of Friedrich Carl von Savigny and Leopold von Ranke, whose most distinguished pupil he was to become. After taking his degree, he settled down in 1841 as a Privatdozent in history at the university of Bonn. He had already made himself known by critical studies on the history of the Middle Ages, of which the most important was his Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (History of the First Crusade) (Düsseldorf, 1841; new ed., Leipzig, 1881), a work which, besides its merit as a valuable piece of historical investigation employing the critical methods he had learnt from Ranke, was also of some significance as a protest against the vaguely enthusiastic attitude encouraged by the Romantic school towards the Middle Ages. In 1861 Lady Duff-Gordon published an English translation of a part of this book, to which were added lectures on the crusades delivered in Munich in 1858, under the title History and Literature of the Crusades. This was followed by a study of the growth of German kingship (Die Entstehung des deutschen Königtums, Frankfurt, 1844, and again 1881), after which he was appointed professor. In the same year (1844) Sybel became prominent as an opponent of the Ultramontane party. The exhibition of the Holy Shroud at Trier had attracted enormous numbers of pilgrims, and so, indignant at what appeared to him a fake, he assisted in publishing an investigation into the authenticity of the celebrated relic. From this time he began to take an active part in contemporary politics and in controversy as a strong but moderate Liberal. In 1846 he was appointed professor at Marburg, and though this small university offered little scope for his activities as a teacher, a seat in the Hessian Landtag gave him his first experience of politics. In 1848 he was present at Frankfurt, but he did not succeed in winning a seat for the National Assembly. His opposition to the extreme democratic and revolutionary party made him unpopular with the mob who broke his windows, and his liberalism made him suspect at court. He sat in the Erfurt parliament of 1850, and was attached to the Gotha party, which hoped for the regeneration of Germany through the leadership of Prussia. During the period 1859–1866, Sybel was engaged in a literary controversy with the historian, Julius von Ficker, on the significance of the German Empire During the years that followed he was occupied with his major chronicle of the French Revolution, Geschichte der Revolutionszeit 1789–1800, for which he had made prolonged studies in the archives of Paris and other countries. The later editions of the earlier volumes were enlarged and altered, and a new edition was published at Stuttgart in 1882. The first three volumes were translated into English by Walter Copland Perry (1867–1869). In this work he showed for the first time the connection between the internal and external history of France. By systematically studying the records, he was also the first to check and correct the traditional account of many episodes of France's internal history. He demonstrated that letters attributed to Marie Antoinette were not genuine. He undermined the influential revolutionary legends, expounded by French writers. Sybel was interested in Edmund Burke, on whom he had published two essays. The work was in fact the first attempt to substitute for the popular view of Thiers and Lamartine, a line which was later taken up by Taine and Albert Sorel. In 1856, on the recommendation of Ranke, Sybel accepted the post of professor at Munich, where King Maximilian II of Bavaria, a generous patron of learning, hoped to establish a school of history. Here he found a fruitful field for his activity. Besides continuing his work on the Revolution and on the Middle Ages, he occupied himself fully with the Historical Seminar which he instituted; with the Historische Zeitschrift which he founded - the original model of the numerous historical periodicals which now exist – and as secretary of the new Historical Commission. Political differences soon interfered with his work; as a supporter of Prussia and a Protestant, especially as a militant champion against the Ultramontanes, he was from the first an object of suspicion to the Clerical party. In the political excitement which followed the war of 1859 he found that he could not hope for the unreserved support of the king, and therefore in 1861 he accepted a professorship at Bonn, which he held until 1875. He was elected a member of the Prussian Lower House, and during the next three years was one of the most active members of that assembly. In several important debates he led the attack on the government, and opposed the policy of Bismarck, not only on finances but also on Polish and Danish affairs, in particular the impending crisis with Denmark over Schleswig and Holstein. In 1864 he did not stand for re-election, owing to an eye infection, but in 1866 he was one of the first to point out the way to a reconciliation between Bismarck and his former opponents. He had a seat in the Constituent Assembly of 1867, and while he joined the National Liberals he distinguished himself by opposing the introduction of universal suffrage, sharing the distrust of many Liberals over its effects. In 1874 he returned to the Prussian parliament in order to support the government in its conflict with the Clericals, and after 1878 with the Socialists. He explained and justified his position in two pamphlets that analysed the teaching of the Socialists and traced Clerical policy during the 19th century. In 1880 he retired, like so many other Liberals, disheartened by the change in political life which he blamed on universal suffrage. In 1875, Bismarck appointed him to the post of director of the Prussian archives. Under his superintendence was begun the great series of publications, besides that of the correspondence of Frederick the Great, which he helped to edit. His last years were occupied with his great work, Die Begründung des deutschen Reiches durch Wilhelm I (The Founding of the German Empire under William I)(Munich, 1889–1894), a work of great importance on German unification, for which he was allowed to use the Prussian state papers and was therefore able to write a history of the greatest events of his own time with full access to highly secret sources of information. As a history of Prussian policy from 1860 to 1866 it is of incomparable value. After the fall of Bismarck permission to use the secret papers was withdrawn, and therefore vols. vi. and vii., which deal with the years 1866 to 1870, are of less importance. This work has been translated into English as The Founding of the German Empire, by M L Perrin and G Bradford (New York, 1890–1891). Sybel did not live to write an account of the war with France, dying at Marburg on 1 August 1895. His other writings include Die deutsche Nation und das Kaiserreich (1862) and a large number of historical articles. Sybel left two sons, one of whom became an officer in the Prussian army; the other, Ludwig von Sybel (1846-1929), a professor of archaeology in the university of Marburg, was the author of several works dealing with Greek archaeology. Some of Sybel's numerous historical and political essays have been collected in Kleine historische Schriften (3 vols, 1863, 1869, 1881; new ed., 1897); Vorträge und Aufsätze (Berlin, 1874); and Vorträge und Abhandlungen, published after his death with a biographical introduction by Conrad Varrentrapp (Munich, 1897).
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I. COUNT BRANDENBURG IN WARSAW. II. OLMUTZ. III. THE DRESDEN CONGRESS. IV. THE NEW CONFEDERATE DIET
I. DUALISM IN THE CONFEDERATION. II. THE NEW AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN ALLIANCE. III. DISCORD. IV. RESULTS. V. THE CLOSE OF THE REIGN OF FREDERICK WILLIAM IV
I. BEGINNING OF THE REGENCY. II. THE ITALIAN WAR. III. QUESTIONS OF REFORM IN GERMANY . IV. CONTEST OVER THE MILITARY REFORMS IN PRUSSIA . V. CONFLICTS IN ALL DIRECTIONS
I. STRUGGLE OVER THE CONSTITUTION. II. COMPLICATIONS IN POLAND. III. PRUSSIA AND RUSSIA. IV. THE ASSEMBLY OF PRINCES AT FRANKFORT
I. THE OLD CONSTITUTION OF SCHLESWIGHOLSTEIN . II. THE QUESTION OF THE SUCCESSION . III. THE COMPACTS OF 1852 . IV. DENMARK BREAKS THE COMPACTS
I. THE CHASTISEMENT DECIDED UPON . II. THE SUCCESSION AND THE CONSTITUTION . III. THE CHASTISEMENT IN HOLSTEIN . IV. THE COMPACT OF JANUARY 16, 1864
I. OUTBREAK OF THE WAR .II. GENERAL MANTEUFFEL IN VIENNA . III. THE STORMING OF DUPPEIV. THE LONDON CONFERENCE
I. CLOSE OF THE LONDON CONFERENCE. II. ALSEN. — PRELIMINARIES OF PEACE. III. THE PEACE OF VIENNA
I. THE SEPTEMBER TREATY WITH ITALY. II. WITHDRAWAL OF THE CONFEDERATE TROOPS FROM HOLSTEIN. III. PRUSSIA'S FEBRUARY DEMANDS. IV. PRUSSIA AND FRANCE. V. CONDITIONS IN SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. VI. AUSTRIA AND THE CONFEDERATE DIET
I. PRUSSIA'S ULTIMATUM. II. MINISTERIAL CRISIS IN AUSTRIA. I II. CHANGE IN THE GOVERNMENT OF SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. IV. BISMARCK IN BIARRITZ. V. SEMI-CORDIAL RELATIONS
I. THE END OF THE AUSTRIAN ALLIANCE. II. A THREATENING SKY. III. CONCLUSION OF THE ITALIAN TREATY. IV. THE MOTION FOR CONFEDERATE REFORM
I. GENERAL PREPARATION FOR WAR. II. FINAL ATTEMPT AT RECONCILIATION. III. AUSTRIA AND FRANCE. IV. THE DECLARATION OF WAR
I. PLANS FOR THE CAMPAIGN. II. THE CONQUEST OF NORTH GERMANY. III. CUSTOZZA
I. PRINCE FREDERICK CHARLES IN BOHEMIA. II. THE CROWN PRINCE FREDERICK WILLIAM IN BOHEMIA. III. KING WILLIAM IN BOHEMIA
I. FRENCH MEDIATION. II. PROPOSALS OF PEACE. III. THE PRELIMINARIES OF PEACE. IV. CAMPAIGN OF THE ARMY OF THE MAIN
I. END OF THE PRUSSIAN CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE. II. FRENCH AND RUSSIAN INTERVENTION. III. CONCLUSION OF THE PEACE. IV. INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT
I. PREPARING FOR THE REICHSTAG. II. THE FIRST YERAS OF THE REICHSTAG. III. LUXEMBURG. IV. THE NORTH GERMAN FEDERAL CONSTITUTION.V. FOREIGN RELATIONS
I. THE NEW CUSTOMS UNION TREATIES. II. THE CUSTOMS UNION TREATIES RATIFIED. III. PRUSSIA'S INTERNAL POLICY. IV. ITALIAN AND SPANISH INTRICACIES. V. THE GERMAN AND THE ORIENTAL QUESTION
I. THE FIRST CUSTOMS PARLIAMENT. II. FLUCTUATIONS IN FRENCH POLITICS. III. COSMOPOLITAN ASPIRATIONS. IV. PARLIAMENTARY CONFLICTS, RESULTS ACHIEVED BY THE GOVERNMENT. V. CLERICAL TENDENCIES IN THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT
I. THE HOHENZOLLERN CANDIDACY. II. THE WITHDRAWAL OF PRINCE LEOPOLD. III. NEW CLAIMS MADE BY FRANCE. IV. THE DECLARATION OF WAR. V. ATTEMPTS TO FORM ALLIANCES
After having pictured in my “History of the Revolutionary
Period from 1789 to 1800” the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire among the
Germans, nothing could have more interest for me, in view of the great events
of 1866 and 1870, than now to describe, with the aid of authentic documents,
the rebirth of the German Empire. It was naturally, for a long time, impossible
to carry out this plan, for political reasons; but after Prince Bismarck
allowed the publication of his Frankfort reports and letters, I was so
fortunate as I to receive from him, March 19, 1881, the permission to make use
of the contents of the Government Archives, as well as of the registry of the
Department of Foreign Affairs, with a view to publishing a history of Prussia
during the years 1850-1870.
Here I found an almost unlimited supply of most useful
material: ministerial decrees, ambassadors’ reports, minutes of Sessions and
Conferences, telegrams, correspondence of all kinds, numerous diplomatic communications
and despatches from foreign powers, important
transactions of the Chambers, and newspaper clippings, — all well arranged in
long rows of many hundred packages of State papers. These were supplemented by
the papers of the State Department, and of the Staff of the Commander-in-Chief,
by oral information obtained from persons who took part in the events, or were
closely connected with them; also, as far as the antagonistic party was
concerned, by the old Archives of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and Nassau. Thus it
was possible, for the most part, to write the history of these decades from the
very documents which had been issued during the course of Prussia’s career or
had determined the same. It was possible to follow very exactly every turn in
Prussian politics during the decisive crises, often day by day, sometimes even
hour by hour. I think I may be allowed to express my conviction that after so
many incomplete, partly incorrect, and even untrue presentations of the
subject, we have here an accurate and comprehensive picture of the Prussian
aims and efforts. The reader will be surprised to see how many important facts
and considerations appear in this connection for the first time, or, at least,
in a new light.
I have not troubled myself about other archives, for
the simple reason that there was not the slightest prospect that a petition to
make use of them would be granted. I should gladly and thankfully accept any
further information or correction in any special line, if, as was the case with
my History of the Revolutionary Period, the appearance of this book should
occasion, in other quarters, documentary investigation, and, at the same time,
an extension of our historical knowledge.
In no part of the book have I tried to conceal my
Prussian and National Liberal convictions; and yet I hope that the reader will
not misjudge my endeavor to recognize, without palliation, faults and mistakes
in my own camp, and to judge justly and fairly the conduct of my opponents,
that is to say, not to refer their motives as to foolishness or baseness, but
to explain them as the result of the traditional premises upon which their
whole position is based. The struggles of 1866 did not arise from the
arbitrariness of personal passions; they sprang rather from the inevitable conflict
between old rights, which had been growing for centuries, and the national
sentiment which made itself felt more and more. This caused an unhealthy
condition of things, which became at last unendurable, and only a violent
crisis could bring about a state of convalescence. Happily for Germany, the
period of recovery was reached. The opponents of 1866 are not simply reconciled
to one another, but united more firmly and lastingly in the bonds of friendship
than ever before. The times of the old Bundestag are behind us, and they form a
closed chapter of our past history. We are able to talk as dispassionately
about Koniggratz as about Kollin and Leuthen.
My most earnest wish will be realized, if I shall have
succeeded in making this way of looking at things clearly felt in every word of
this book. Then the diagnosis of the disease and of the crisis cannot but serve
to establish more firmly the newly acquired health and concord.
The two volumes now published bring the narration to the commencement of the last war with Denmark; those next following, which bring the history down to the formation of the North German Confederation, will appear in the course of the coming year. I cannot now definitely set a time for the completion of the entire work; but I shall do all in my power to hasten it.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
1740-1786, Reign of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia.
1786-1797, Reign of Frederick William II.
1797-1840, Reign of Frederick William III.
1840-1861, Reign of Frederick William IV.
1858-1861, Regency of William I.
1861-1888, Reign of William I.
1862, July 12. Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine.
October 14. Battle of Jena.
1807, July 9. Peace of Tilsit, between Prussia and France.
1813, Oct. 16-19.Battle of Leipzig.
1814, May 30. First Peace of Paris.
Sept. 20-1815, June 10. Congress of Vienna.
1815, May 22. Constitutional Law granted in Prussia by Frederick William III
June 8. German Confederation constituted at Vienna.
June 18. Battle of Waterloo.
Nov. 20. Second Peace of Paris.
1816, November 16. First Session of the German Confederate Diet at Frankfort.
1819, Sept 20. Carlsbad Decrees adopted.
1820, June 8. Vienna Final Act.
1830, July 27-29. Revolution at Paris.
Sept. 7. Revolution at Brunswick; flight of the Duke.
Sept. 13. Revolution in Saxony ; abdication of the King.
1830-1848. Reign of Louis Philippe.
1831, Jan. 5. New Constitution in Hesse-Cassel.
Sept. 30. Elector William II. abdicates in favor of the Electoral Prince as Co-regent.
1832, June 28. New Confederate Laws passed.
1834, Jan. 1. Establishment of the Tariff-Union.
1835, March 2. Death of Francis of Austria, accession of Ferdinand I.
1846. Insurrections in Poland and Galicia.
July 8. Christian VIII. of Denmark declares the integrity of the Kingdom, and the right of the Crown to Schleswig and Holstein.V
1847, Feb. 13. Summons issued to the United Provincial Diet in Prussia.
Sep. 12. Meeting of Liberals at Offenburg.
Oct. 10. Meeting of Constitutional party at Heppenheim.
Nov. 20. Frederick William I. becomes Elector of Hesse-Cassel.
1848, Jan. 20. Accession of Frederick VI., King of Denmark.
Jan. 28. Frederick VII proclaims a new Constitution, uniting the Duchies more closely with Denmark.
Feb. 24. Outbreak of the Revolution in Paris.
March 13. Insurrection in Vienna ; flight of Metternich.
March 18. Insurrection in Berlin.
March 24. Eider-Danish Government declares the incorporation of the Duchies.
March 24. Insurrection in the Duchies; Provisional Government established.
March 24. The rebels in the Duchies seize the fortress of Rendsburg.
March 30-April 4. German Preliminary Parliament at Frankfort.
April 9. Troops of the Duchies defeated near Flensburg.
April 23. Danes defeated by Prussians, aiding the Duchies, at the Dannevirke.
May 2. Capture of the fortress of Fridericia.
May 15. Insurrection at Vienna ; Emperor flees to Innsbruck.
May 18. Meeting of the German National Assembly at Frankfort.
May 29. Archduke John appointed Vicar-General of the Austrian Empire at Vienna.
June 28. Decree of the National Assembly concerning a Central Government.
June 29. Archduke John chosen Regent of the German Empire.
July 12. The Confederate Diet remits its functions to the Archduke John.
July 12. Termination of the Confederate Diet.
July 25. Italians defeated at Custozza by Radetzky.
Aug. 26. Truce and Compact of Malmo signed.
Sept. 5. Compact of Malmo rejected by the Committee of National Assembly.
Sept. 16. Compact of Malmo accepted by the National Assembly.
Sept. 17. Riot in Frankfort.
Oct. 6. Insurrection in Vienna; murder of Count Latour.
Nov. 22. Schwarzenberg appointed Prime Minister of Austria.
Nov. 22. Austrian Diet at Krenisier.
Dec. 2. The Emperor Ferdinand I.abdicates in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph.
Dec. 10. Louis Napoleon chosen President of the French Republic.
1849, Feb. 26. Victory of Austrians over Hungarians.
March 4. New Constitution proclaimed for Austria
1849, March 7.Close of the Kremsier Diet
March 23. Battle of Novara; abdication of Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel.
March 24. The Prussian King formally recognizes the claims of the Duchies.
March 26.End of the truce of Malmö.
March 28. The German National Assembly elects the King of Prussia "Hereditary Emperor of Germany."
April 3. The King declines the imperial crown.
April 3. Hostilities with Denmark recommence.
April 8. Wildenbruch's interview with the King of Denmark.
April 12. The German National Assembly recognizes the Provisional Government of the Duchies.
May 26. Formation of the League of the Three Kingdoms.
June 5. The King of Denmark sanctions a new liberal constitution.
July 3. The French enter Rome.
July 10. Armistice renewed at Malmö.
Sept. 30. Compact of the "Interim:" a treaty between Prussia and Austria for the formation of a new central authority for a limited time.
1850, Feb. 23. Appointment of Hassenpflug, Minister in Hesse-Cassel.
Feb. 27. Federation of the Four Kingdoms.
March and April. Union Parliament meets at Erfurt.
May 8. Meeting of Princes in Berlin.
May 10. Confederate Congress, summoned by Austria, meets at Frankfort.
July 2. Separate Peace between Denmark and Prussia.
July 14. Official declaration from the King of Denmark.
July 24. Battle of Idstedt ; defeat of Schlcswig-Holsteiners.
Aug. 2. Protocol signed in London by the Great Powers, proclaiming the integrity of Denmark.
Sept. 2. Restoration of the Confederate Diet at Frankfort; Prussia and her associates refuse to join it
Oct. 11. League formed at Bregenz by Austria, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg against Prussia.
Oct. 17. Brandenburg meets the Czar at Warsaw.
Oct. 26. Brandenburg's first interview with the Austrian Emperor.
Nov. 2. Ministerial Council at Berlin decides upon peaceful measures.
Nov. 6. Death of Count Brandenburg.
Nov. 8. Skirmish at Bronzell.
Nov. 9. Schwarzenberg demands the abolition of the Prussian Union.
Nov. 9. Prussian troops occupy the military roads in HesseCassel.
Nov. 29. Convention of Olmütz.
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FREDERICK WILLIAM I |
PRINCE VON METTERNICH |
LOUISA. QUEEN OF PRUSSIA (1776 – 1810) |
FIELD MARSHALL VON MOLTKE |
EMPEROR FREDERICK |
EMPEROR WILLIAM II |
