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ANNALS OF WAR. 1700-1815 |
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ANNALS OF WAR_ 1700-1815 A.D.
1716.
1. THE TURKISH AND VENETIAN NAVAL FIGHT AT CORFU.— 2.
WAR BETWEEN THE EMPEROR AND THE PORTE. THE BATTLE OF PETERWARADIN.— 3. WAR
IN THE NORTH. THE AFFAIR OF THE SWEDISH COUNTS GORTZ AND GYLLENBORG.
1. The Turkish
and Venetian Naval Fight at Corfu.
The Turks at this time entered with increasing energy
into the war with Venice. They caused their fleet to be greatly increased,
a flotilla under Ibrahim Aga was despatched to the mouths of
the Danube, and preparations were made for a descent upon Corfu. The Venetians
looked about for some foreigner of eminence to command their forces, and
at length engaged the Count de Schulenburg, a Saxon general of
considerable repute, who had distinguished himself in the wars of Sweden
and Poland.
On the 5th of July the Ottoman fleet appeared before
the island. It was composed of twenty-two ships of the line and a quantity
of vessels filled with troops, and was under the command of the Capudan Pacha, Djanum Cogia. The Venetian captain-general was as usual behind
hand in his warlike preparations: the troops they had pressed into their
service for the defence of the place were not armed, and there were in
harbour but a few galleys. These could not resist the entry of the Turkish
fleet into the waters, but, nevertheless, they succeeded in getting away,
for the Turks were too much occupied with landing their troops to mind
what the Venetians did. Thirty thousand Turkish infantry and 3000 cavalry
established their camp near Potamo, within a
league from the fort, and the siege was confided to the Seraskier.
Suddenly, as unexpected as an apparition, the fire of artillery was heard
at sea, for the Venetian galleys which had escaped from the port having
united themselves with the Proveditore Cornaro,
who was bringing ships of war and a convoy from Venice, doubled the
Cape of Cassopo, and came full in view of the Ottomans. Cogia hastened on board his fleet and stopped
the disembarkation—making sail and preparing for action, but this
could not be performed without some confusion, and he could scarcely
form his ships in line before the Venetian fleet was upon them.
Flangini instantly began the action, and Corwo’s division followed him. The cannonade was dreadful, and fell heavily upon
the Capudan Pacha, whose ship was disabled, so
that, though he had lost no ship of his fleet, he retired with it in the
night to Butrinto, whilst the Venetians safely
brought their convoy into port.
2. War between the Emperor and
the Porte. The Battle of Peterwaradin.
The rapid successes of the Turks in the Morea,
which brought to recollection the former preponderance of the Ottoman Porte,
spread general alarm in Europe. The Pope, alarmed at the progress of
the infidels, urged the Emperor to stand forth in defence of
Christendom. As guarantee of the treaty of Carlovitz, by which the
territory that was assailed had been assigned to Venice, he was also
appealed to by that republic. The Emperor accordingly prepared for
immediate hostilities, and assembled a small but well-disciplined army
under Prince Eugene. This Prince passed the Danube in sight of
the Ottoman army, amounting to 150,000 men, and encamped near Peterwaradin, behind the very intrenchments which he had
occupied in his former campaign, and which, by an unaccountable
negligence, the Turks had not destroyed. On the 5th of August he led his
troops against the Grand Vizier Ali, brother-in-law of the Sultan,
routed his numerous but undisciplined forces, who could only oppose a
blind and impotent valour against men disciplined under the best
leaders, and flushed with the victories of the last war, in which they
had been led by the military skill and experience of the friend of
Marlborough. The battle began at eight in the morning with a
tremendous fire of artillery from the side of the Turks. The Prince of Wurtemberg led the left wing against the enemy and passed
completely through them—but the right attack was not so prosperous.
The Turks had opened trenches quite up to the intrenchments, and
accordingly the eight columns which attacked had to pass first through the
apertures of their own lines, and then were not able to deploy from the
close vicinity of those of the enemy. Lanko and Wallenstein were killed in the
attempt. The Count de Bonneval was severely
wounded, but, nevertheless, pushed on till Count John Palffy came up with
2000 horse on the flank of the janizaries, and
forced them to retire after five hours' fighting, when they were crushed
in their retreat by the guns of Peterwaradin.
The Grand Vizier was killed, with 30,000 Turks, and the booty taken was
immense, together with 250 pieces of heavy artillery. Eugene took
possession of the superb tent the Vizier, and therein returned thanks by
his own chaplain for the victory. Many of the officers obtained great
wealth. Bonneval acknowledges in his memoirs to
having received, as his reward, the tent of the Aga of the janizaries. Prince Eugene despatched a hasty line to the
Emperor with an account of his victory. He says of himself, “Il est aisé d'être modeste quand on est heureux” (it's
easy to be humble when you're happy) a hint that ought not to be
thrown away on other fortunate commanders. On the 25th of August the Prince
caused the Temeswar to be invested, against which the trenches were opened
on the 1st of September, but the whole month was occupied by the siege,
and it was not till the 30th that a species of block-house, on which
depended the possession of the place, was taken by assault after severe
loss. The place capitulated on the 13th of October. An article
was attempted to be inserted in the terms of the capitulation in favour
of some Hungarian rebels, who formed part of the garrison.
Eugene wrote this memorandum against the article, “Cette canaille peut se retirer où elle voudra,”
(that scoundrel can go wherever he wants) and gave this reason for it, that
a trifling tone disdain gives frequently a useful and advantageous
superiority to a negotiating general.
3. War in the North.
The last year left “Swedish Charles” at Carlserona,
just escaped from Stralsund. Here he was without an army, without allies,
and apparently without a policy or an object, though at war at once
with Denmark, Prussia, Russia, Poland, and England. This war was extremely
prejudicial to the latter power, on account of her commerce, and the
British Government desired an accommodation; but the King of Sweden would
not be reconciled so long as the Elector of Hanover retained Bremen and
Verden, which he had unjustly obtained at the cost of Sweden, and which be
still refused to restore. Charles was justly and highly indignant, and in
his anger formed a scheme for a military descent upon the United Kingdom,
where he knew there were many malcontents. This sort of enterprise
flattered the ambition as well as the revenge of such a self-willed
young warrior, who had no system of settled policy, and was as ready
to tight with the English as against the Danes or Russians; indeed
at this time the Czar was not altogether unwilling to unite with the Swedish
Monarch against King George. There had been at the close of the preceding
year some increase of misunderstanding between Peter and his allies. The
Czar had sent 25,000 Russian troops to assist the confederates in the
reduction of Wismar, a town situated on the shores of the Baltic Sea, not
far from Lubeck, and the last place remaining to Sweden in Pomerania, but
before the Muscovite troops could arrive, the Danes and Prussians had
taken it, and would not admit the Russians in the garrison. He was also
discontented with all his German allies, who were discontented with him,
and continually opposing him in his attempt to gain a footing in the
Empire. The dubious condition of the existing relations between the
northern powers gave occasion to an intrigue of a bold and unjustifiable
character, in which the Baron Görtz, the Swedish prime minister, was the
principal actor. He had more influence over his royal master at this time
than had been ever possessed even by Count Piper, and he was a man of
prodigious energy and activity. While Charles, therefore, followed his
military prepossessions, this minister repaired in person to England,
France, and Holland, to put in action the great plans he had formed to
shake Europe. The Czar was at this time himself in Holland with his
Empress, who had been brought to bed of a son at Wesel, and had thence
accompanied her husband to Amsterdam. King George had also passed through
the Hague on his return from his electoral dominions, so that Görtz
was able to observe the sayings and doings of all the principal men of
the day in the drama he was preparing. Some inkling of his
proceedings was, however, obtained by others, and as soon as the King
returned to England, Stanhope, the secretary of state, proposed to seize
Count Gyllenborg, the Swedish minister at London, and all his
papers. This was effected on the 29th of January by no less a person
than General Wade, who had this duty put upon him, and who made
the Count a prisoner in his own house. Görtz very narrowly
escaped the same fate, for he had actually reached Calais on his way to
London, when he heard what had happened, and returned to Holland. The
States General were now called on, in virtue of existing treaties, and for
their common safety, to seize the Baron; but he heard of their intention
and escaped to Arnheim, where however, at length, he and his secretary and
all his papers were seized. The Czar, who was not altogether uncompromised
in this intrigue, although he had absolutely refused to see Baron Görtz,
who had made constant endeavours to approach his Majesty, as on the other hand
he had also declined an interview with his royal brother when he passed by
the Hague, proceeded quietly on his travels into France and Paris,
where he was munificently received and entertained by the Regent Duke
of Orleans.
Charles had occupied himself at Carlserona during the
winter with assembling an army of 20,000 men, and heard the intelligence
brought him of these transactions with little emotion. He neither owned
nor disowned the proceedings of Görtz and Gyllenborg, but
contented himself with ordering the arrest of the British minister at
Stockholm, Mr. Jackson, and with forbidding the Dutch resident to come
near him. Suddenly, to the surprise of Europe, he crossed with his army
into Norway to make war against the King of Denmark. Here he found a
most difficult country, and but few enemies, as the Czar’s projects kept
the Muscovite armies for the present inactive.
Peter was not a man to lose his time in idle
ceremonies at Paris. He came there to inform himself of various political
relations, which it was necessary for his policy to understand : but as
some passages in the rifled correspondence of Görtz and Gyllenborg formed
ground for the supposition that he was privy to the meditated descent
upon the United Kingdom, the British Government reflected on him
in some State papers, to which he thought proper to reply,
complaining that such malicious insinuations of his enemies had been
permitted to be printed. This occasioned a rejoinder from King George,
who assured the Czar that he should be fully satisfied if he would
remove the only obstacle to a good understanding, by withdrawing his
Russian troops from the German Empire. Whilst, therefore, he was in France
the Czar concluded a treaty with the Regent, and promised to satisfy the
King of England in this particular, if he would on his side release Görtz
and Gyllenborg from their imprisonment. This was accordingly done in the
month of August when those statesmen were both liberated after six months’
imprisonment, during which the King of Sweden had never condescended the
least explanation, nor expressed the slightest dissatisfaction at the
conduct of his ministers.
Charles XII, attended by his brother-in-law, the
Prince of Hesse, remained with his army in Norway. This province was defended
by about 11,000 Danes, and the King wasted the country, and put
its defended continually to the rout and to the sword. He even advanced as
far as Christiania, the capital; but the Danes at length brought up a
fleet and army to the defence of Norway, and Charles, for want of
supplies, was obliged to withdraw his troops within his Swedish frontier.
1717.
1. THE SIEGE OF CORFU BY THE TURKS.—2. SIEGE AND
BATTLE OF BELGRADE.—3. SPAIN SEIZES THE ISLAND OF SARDINIA.
1. The Siege of Corfu by
the Turks.
War was still raging between the Turks and the
Imperialists and Venetians: the rest of Europe and of the world in general was
enjoying its repose, although ill blood was fermenting under the
intrigues of Alberoni in Spain, which was again
preparing for war. Notwithstanding the departure of the Turkish fleet after its
conflict with the galleys of Venice, the Turkish troops under Kara
Mustapha Pacha undertook the siege of Corfu, and commenced their attack on
Mount Abraham, which commands the fortifications of the place. It
was most resolutely defended by Count Schulenburg, and the
difficulties in the way of getting up the besiegers’ artillery so consumed
time that it was already the end of July before Mount Abraham and the
height of San Salvador were in their possession. From these
heights, however, the town was now crushed by their
fire. The Venetian fleet tried to draw the Capudan Pacha, who had in the meantime returned, again into action, but he would
not hazard the security of the army. The Turks now opened a useless fire
on the high tower of St. Spiridion, when
Schulenburg determined to try the effect of sorties. On the 7th of August,
with 1000 men, assisted by the Venetian fleet, he fell upon the Turkish
besiegers at three in the morning, and after a seven hours’ combat
returned to his quarters, with no great result on either side. Some days
later he again beat them up. On the night of the 17th—18th of August, the Seraskier, therefore, wearied out with these attacks,
determined on a general assault. At first they carried all before them,
but after a contest of six hours Schulenburg put himself at the head of
800 men and fell upon the enemy’s flank with such success that it was
disordered, and the whole force driven back into their trenches, with a
loss of 2000 killed and twenty standards. In the night that succeeded, a
heavy gale came on, causing much anxiety for the fleet. The tempest tossed the
ships, the rain descended in torrents, the tents of the Turks were blown
to rags, and in this war of the elements the Turkish soldiery lost heart,
and demanded with incessant cries to be re-embarked. The Seraskier was himself shaken, and hearing that a Spanish
fleet was coming to the assistance of the Venetians, he determined
to raise the siege. He accordingly embarked his army in the
night, and making sail got clear out of the port by morning, and safely
into harbour at Butrinto. He had already
sacrificed 15,000 men in the siege, which had lasted forty-two days, and
he now left behind fifty-six guns and mortars, a great many sick and wounded
prisoners, and all their baggage. Pisani with the Venetian galleys pursued
the enemy, but the Turkish fleet got safely to the Dardanelles.
Schulenburg immediately attacked Butrinto and Santa
Maura, which surrendered on the 21st of August without resistance. The republic
of Venice raised a statue to Schulenburg, in gratitude for his services on the
isle he had so well defended. The successful general bore his honours
meekly, and employed the influence they conferred upon him nobly. Being
himself a Protestant he demanded and obtained from the republic a complete
toleration for his co-religionists. It may be here related, that in
October of the following year the scene of this glorious defence was
visited by a thunderstorm, which setting fire to the powder magazine,
destroyed all the fortifications by its explosion; but Schulenburg
restored the works, rearranging them very much, as they remain to this
day.
2. Siege and Battle of Belgrade.
The conquests which distinguished the campaign of 1716
were followed by still greater successes this year. Prince Eugene stood so
high in general estimation, that he said of himself, “he could have
assembled squadrons of princes as volunteers.” His first resolve was to
undertake the siege of Belgrade, the key of the Ottoman dominions, on the
side of Hungary. On the 19th of June he passed his army across the Danube
and invested the place. Belgrade contained at this time a garrison of
30,000 men, commanded by Schatir Ali Pacha, an officer who had served under
the Grand Vizier in the previous year. As the Prince was
reconnoitring the very first day, he narrowly escaped capture. Some 1200
spahis made a sudden sortie, and with loud shouts of “Allah! Allah!”
came into the midst of his suite; the commanding officer only failed
to take him prisoner by Eugene’s presenting his pistol against
him. The sorties of the Turkish garrison were terrible, and made
great havoc amongst the illustrious volunteers. The fire of the place
also committed great havoc, which was increased by the fire from some gun-boats
on the Danube. The bridges across this river by the freshes were also
carried away, all which occasioned delay. Notwithstanding, the batteries of the
besiegers opened with such good effect, that the capture of the town was
imminent; when, on the 22nd of July, the Grand Vizier arrived for its
relief, at the head of an army of 180,000 men. Happily for Prince Eugene
he had had the prudence to throw up strong lines of circumvallation to
defend his camp. The Turkish army crowned all the surrounding heights
with their troops, from Krotoka to Dedina, but
they found the besiegers so strongly intrenched, that they were under the
necessity, on the 13th of August, of opening trenches to force the lines;
presenting the extraordinary sight of two sieges proceeding at once—the
besiegers themselves besieged. The danger to the imperial army was
however most alarming—shut up as they were between a mighty army and an
immense fortress—with the unhealthy marshes of the Save and Danube around
them, which at this season decimated the army. The Prince himself was
attacked by disease and confined to his bed. Here he heard that some of
his servants had been shot down outside his very tent. Unable to exert
himself from sickness, he saw his army in danger of being lost if it
attempted to move, and beaten if it remained where it was. Boldness,
military skill, and discipline, at length saved him. On the 15th of August
he felt himself better, and equal to the perilous step that he meditated.
He knew he could confide in his troops, and that the spirit in them was
excellent. They were as thoroughly confident in their leader,
exclaiming—“Lead us on against the enemy—Eugene commands—we will conquer
or die.” It was necessary for him to keep 20,000 men in the works to
restrain the garrison, and he could only bring 40,000 others to assault
the Grand Vizier’s intrenchments, which were bristling with guns,
and defended by nearly 200,000 soldiers. At one in the morning of
the 15th the discharge of three bombs gave the signal for the
different columns of attack to march out of the lines. The Turks have
never any advanced posts or pickets, and, in addition to the darkness of
the night, there was, on this occasion, a thick fog. About two o'clock
the several columns burst upon the sleeping camp. In the
confusion, however, the Imperialists got bewildered in the enemy’s lines;
but Eugene had providently desired the troops to carry with them
fascines to lay over the ditches, so that when the janizaries prepared to assail them, the Bavarian horse, under Colonna, were brought
forward across the trenches, who dashed into the midst of the enemy
and took eighteen pieces of cannon. The Prince brought up his
second line in support of the Bavarians; but, in the melée, one of his regiments was
entirely cut to pieces, and he himself received a severe sabre-wound—the
thirteenth during his glorious career. Other regiments now pushed forward,
and the captured Turkish cannon were turned against the banners of the
Crescent. It was now eleven in the day, and the victory was decided. The
Imperialists were in possession of all the intrenchments, and the Turks
fled on every side in terror and dismay. During the battle the town was
pressed vigorously from the other side, and capitulated the same day* The
consequence of this glorious day was the peace of Passarowitz, in the
following year.
3. Spain seizes the Island of Sardinia.
Monteleone, the Spanish ambassador in London, although
discredited by his Government, had gone deeply into the conspiracy of the
Swedish ministers, Görtz and Gyllenborg, and given money to advance its
execution; while Cardinal Alberoni had entered into
the matter heart and soul. This minister was never quiet, and was
now disposed to enter into the war with the Turks. The Spanish King assured
the Pope that he was only interested for the good of Christendom against the
Turks, and in consequence he obtained an indulto for
raising a subsidy on the church revenues in the Indies. He now however
turned to a more interested quarter. Secure at Madrid, he had nothing to
fear from Turks or Christians, but the King, his master, had cast a
longing eye towards the Italian peninsula, whence he hoped to derive a
patrimony for his second son. In August an armament of twelve ships of war,
carrying 9000 men, left Barcelona secretly, and steered for Sardinia. Cagliari,
the capital, was defended by the Austrian governor, the Marquis of Hubi, who found himself suddenly besieged and obliged
to surrender to the Spaniards; in two months afterwards the whole island,
which belonged to the Emperor, acknowledged the domination of the Catholic
King.
Other preparations were pushed forward by the zeal and
activity of Cardinal Alberoni with equal vigour and
equal secrecy, which were destined for Naples and Sicily. Another
expedition was preparing at Barcelona. The grandees, prelates, provinces, and
cities, taxed themselves for this expedition voluntarily, or in obedience
to the papal rescript, and raised regiments at their own expense.
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