THEHISTORY OF MUSIC LIBRARY |
SECTION III The Italian School The fifteenth century
may be considered as the period when the art of making instruments
of the Viol class took root in Italy, a period rich in men labouring
in the cause of Art. The long list of honoured names connected with
Art in Italy during the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries
is a mighty roll-call indeed! The memory dwells upon the number
of richly-stored minds that have, within the limits of these three
centuries, bequeathed their art treasures to all time; and if here
we cannot suppress a comparison of the art world of the present
Italy with that of the periods named, still less can we fail to
be astonished as we discover the abyss into which Italy must be
judged to have sunk in point of merit, when measured by the high
standard which in former days she set herself. But perhaps the greatest
marvel of all is the rapidity of the decadence when it once set
in, as it did immediately after the culminating point of artistic
fame had been reached.
To reflect for a
moment upon the many famous men in Italy engaged in artistic vocations
contemporary with the great Viol and Violin makers cannot fail to
be interesting to the lovers of our instrument, for it has the effect
of surrounding their favourite with an interest extending beyond
its own path. It also serves to make prominent the curious fact
that the art of Italian Violin-making emerged from its chrysalis
state when the painters of Italy displayed their greatest strength
of genius, and perfected itself when the Fine Arts of Italy were
cast in comparative darkness. It is both interesting and remarkable
that the art of Italian Violin-making—which in its infancy
shared with all the arts the advantage attending the revival of
art and learning—should have been the last to mature and die. Whilst the artist,
scientist, and musician, Leonardo da Vinci, was painting, inventing,
and singing his sonnets to the accompaniment of his Lute; whilst
Raphael was executing the commands of Leo X., and Giorgio was superintending
the manufacture of his inimitable majolica ware, the Viol-makers
of Bologna were designing their instruments and assimilating them
to the registers of the human voice, in order that the parts of
Church and chamber madrigals might be played instead of sung, or
that the voices might be sustained by the instruments. If we turn to the
days of Gasparo da Sal�, Maggini, and Andrea Amati, we find that
while they were sending forth their Fiddles, Titian was painting
his immortal works, and Benvenuto Cellini, the greatest goldsmith
of his own or any age, was setting the jewels of popes and princes,
and enamelling the bindings of their books. Whilst the master-minds
of Antonio Stradivari and Giuseppe Guarneri del Ges� were occupied
with those instruments which have caused their names to be known
throughout the civilised world (and uncivilised too,
for many thousands of Violins are yearly made into which their cherished
names are thrust, after which they are despatched for the negro's
use), Canaletto was painting his Venetian squares and canals, Venetians
whose names are unrecorded were blowing glass of wondrous form and
beauty. At the same time, in the musical world, Corelli was writing
his jigs and sarabands, Geminiani penning one of the first instruction
books for the Violin, and Tartini dreaming his "Sonata del
Diavolo"; and while Guadagnini and the stars of lesser magnitude
were exercising their calling, Viotti, the originator of a school
of Violin-playing, was writing his concertos, and Boccherini laying
the foundation of classical chamber-music of a light and pleasing
character. It would be easy to continue this vein of thought, were
it not likely to become irksome to the reader; enough has been said
to refresh the memory as to the flourishing state of Italian art
during these times. What a mine of wealth was then opened up for
succeeding generations! and how curious is the fact that not only
the Violin, but its music, has been the creature of the most luxurious
age of art; for in that golden age musicians contemporary with the
great Violin-makers were writing music destined to be better understood
and appreciated when the Violins then made should have reached their
maturity. That Italy's greatest
Violin-makers lived in times favourable to the production of works
possessing a high degree of merit, cannot be doubted. They were
surrounded by composers of rare powers, and also by numerous orchestras.
These orchestras, composed mainly of stringed instruments, were
scattered all over Italy, Germany, and France, in churches, convents,
and palaces, and must have created a great demand for bow instruments
of a high class. The bare mention
of a few of the names of composers then existing will be sufficient
to bring to the mind of the reader well versed in musical matters
the compositions to which they owe their fame. In the sixteenth
century, Orlando di Lasso, Isaac, and Palestrina were engaged in
writing Church music, in which stringed instruments were heard;
in the seventeenth, lived Stradella, Lotti, Bononcini, Lully, and
Corelli. In the eighteenth century, the period when the art of Violin-making
was at its zenith, the list is indeed a glorious one. At this point
is the constellation of Veracini, Geminiani, Vivaldi, Locatelli,
Boccherini, Tartini, Viotti, Nardini, among the Italians; while
in France it is the epoch of Leclair and Gavini�s, composers of
Violin music of the highest excellence. Surrounded by these men
of rare genius, who lived but to disseminate a taste for the king
of instruments, the makers of Violins must certainly have enjoyed
considerable patronage, and doubtless those of tried ability readily
obtained highly remunerative prices for their instruments, and were
encouraged in their march towards perfection both in design and
workmanship. Besides the many writers for the Violin, and executants,
there were numbers of ardent patrons of the Cremonese and Brescian
makers. Among these may be mentioned the Duke of Ferrara, Charles
IX., Cardinal Ottoboni (with whom Corelli was in high favour), Cardinal
Orsini (afterwards Pope Benedict XIII.), Victor Amadeus Duke of
Savoy, the Duke of Modena, the Marquis Ariberti, Charles III. (afterwards
Charles VI., Emperor of Germany), and the Elector of Bavaria, all
of whom gave encouragement to the art by ordering complete sets
of stringed instruments for their chapels and for other purposes.
By the aid of such valuable patronage the makers were enabled to
centre their attention on their work, and received reward commensurate
with the amount of skill displayed. This had the effect of raising
them above the status of the ordinary workman, and permitted them
as a body to pass their lives amid comparative plenty. There are,
without doubt, instances of great results obtained under trying
circumstances, but the genius required to combine a successful battle
with adversity with high proficiency in art is indeed a rare phenomenon.
Carlyle says of such minds: "In a word, they willed one thing,
to which all other things were subordinate, and made subservient,
and therefore they accomplished it. The wedge will rend rocks, but
its edge must be sharp and single; if it be double, the wedge is
bruised in pieces, and will rend nothing." It may, therefore,
be affirmed that the greatest luminaries of the art world have shone
most brightly under circumstances in keeping with their peaceful
labours, it not being essential to success that men highly gifted
for a particular art should have this strength of will unless there
were immediate call for its exercise. Judging from the
large number of bow-instrument makers in Italy, more particularly
during the seventeenth century, we should conclude that the Italians
must have been considered as far in advance of the makers of other
nations, and that they monopolised, in consequence, the chief part
of the manufacture. The city of Cremona became the seat of the trade,
and the centre whence, as the manufacture developed itself, other
less famous places maintained their industry. In this way there
arose several distinct schools of a character marked and thoroughly
Italian, but not attaining the high standard reached by the parent
city. Notwithstanding the inferiority of the makers of Naples, Florence,
and other homes of the art as compared with the Cremonese, they
seem to have received a fair amount of patronage, the number of
instruments manufactured in these places of lesser fame being considerable. To enable the reader
to understand more readily the various types of Italian Violins,
they may be classed as the outcome of five different schools. The
first is that of Brescia, dating from about 1520 to 1620, which
includes Gasparo da Sal�, Maggini, and a few others of less note.
The next, and most important school, was that of Cremona, dating
from 1550 to 1760, or even later, and including the following makers:
Andrea Amati, Girolamo Amati, Antonio Amati, Niccol� Amati, Girolamo
Amati, son of Niccol�; Andrea Guarneri, Pietro Guarneri, Giuseppe
Guarneri, the son of Andrea; Giuseppe Guarneri ("del Ges�"),
the nephew of Andrea; Antonio Stradivari, and Carlo Bergonzi. Several
well-known makers have been omitted in the foregoing list simply
because they were followers of those mentioned, and therefore cannot
be credited with originality of design. The makers of Milan and
Naples may be braced together as one school, under the name of Neapolitan,
dating from 1680 to 1800. This school contains makers of good repute,
viz., the members of the Grancino family, Carlo Testore, Paolo Testore,
the Gagliano family, and Ferdinando Landolfi. The makers of Florence,
Bologna, and Rome may likewise be classed together in a school that
dates from 1680 to 1760, and includes the following names: Gabrielli,
Anselmo, Tecchler, and Tononi. The Venetian school, dating from
1690 to 1764, has two very prominent members in Domenico Montagnana
and Santo Seraphino; but the former maker may, not inappropriately,
be numbered with those of Cremona, for he passed his early years
in that city, and imbibed all the characteristics belonging to its
chief makers. Upon glancing at
this imposing list of makers, it is easy to understand that it must
have been a lucrative trade which in those days gave support to
so many; and, further, that Italy, as compared with Germany, France,
or England at that period, must have possessed, at least, more makers
by two-thirds than either of those three countries. And this goes
far to prove, moreover, that the Italian makers received extensive
foreign patronage, their number being far in excess of that required
to supply their own country's wants in the manufacture of Violins.
Roger North, in his "Memoirs of Musick," evidences the
demand for Italian Violins in the days of James II. He remarks:
"Most of the young nobility and gentry that have travelled
into Italy affected to learn of Corelli, and brought home with them
such favour for the Italian music, as hath given it possession of
our Parnassus. And the best utensil of Apollo, the Violin,
is so universally courted and sought after, to be had of the best
sort, that some say England hath dispeopled Italy of Violins."
We also read of William Corbett, a member of the King's band, having
formed about the year 1710 a "gallery of Cremonys and Stainers"
during his residence in Rome. Brescia was the cradle
of Italian Violin-making, for the few makers of bowed instruments
(among whom were Gaspard Duiffoprugcar, who established himself
at Bologna; Dardelli, of Mantua; Linarolli and Maller, of Venice)
cannot be counted among Violin-makers. The only maker, therefore,
of the Violin of the earliest date, it remains to be said, was Gasparo
da Sal�, to whom belongs the credit of raising the manufacture of
bowed instruments from a rude state to an art. There may be something
in common between the early works of Gasparo da Sal� and Gaspard
Duiffoprugcar, but the link that connects these two makers is very
slight, and in the absence of further information respecting the
latter as an actual maker of Violins, the credit of authorship must
certainly belong to Gasparo da Sal�. We are indebted to
Brescia for the many grand Double-basses and Tenors that were made
there by Gasparo da Sal� and Maggini. These instruments formed the
stepping-stones to Italian Violin-making, for it is evident that
they were in use long before the first era of the Violin. The Brescian
Violins have not the appearance of antiquity that is noticeable
in the Double-basses or Tenors, and for one Brescian Violin there
are ten Double-basses, a fact which goes far to prove that the latter
was the principal instrument at that time.
From Brescia came
the masters who established the School of Cremona. The Amatis took
the lead, their founder being Andrea Amati, after whom each one
of the clan appears to have gained a march on his predecessor, until
the grand masters of their art, Antonio Stradivari and Giuseppe
Guarneri del Ges�, advanced far beyond the reach of their fellow-makers
or followers. The pupils of the Amati, Stradivari, and Guarneri
settled in Milan, Florence, and other cities previously mentioned
as centres of Violin-making, and thus formed the distinct character
or School belonging to each city. A close study of the various Schools
shows that there is much in common among them. A visible individuality
is found throughout the works of the Italian makers, which is not
to be met with in anything approaching the same degree in the similar
productions of other nations. Among the Italians, each artist appears
to have at first implicitly obeyed the teaching of his master, afterwards,
as his knowledge increased, striking out a path for himself. To
such important acts of self-reliance may be traced the absolute
perfection to which the Italians at last attained. Not content with
the production of instruments capable of producing the best tone,
they strove to give them the highest finish, and were rewarded,
possibly beyond their expectation. The individuality noticed as
belonging in a high degree to Italian work is in many instances
very remarkable. How characteristic the scroll and the sound-hole
of each several maker! The work of master and pupil differs here
in about the same degree as the handwriting of father and son, and
often more. Although Stradivari was a pupil of Niccol� Amati, yet
how marked is the difference between the scrolls and sound-holes
of these two makers; Carlo Bergonzi worked with Stradivari, yet
the productions of these two are more easily known apart. A similarly
well-defined originality is found, in a more or less degree, to
pervade the entire series of Italian Violins, and forms a feature
of much interest to the connoisseur. In closing my remarks
upon the Italian School of Violin-making, I cannot withhold from
the reader the concluding sentences of the Cremonese biographer,
Vincenzo Lancetti, as contained in his manuscript relative to the
makers of Cremona. He says: "I cannot help but deeply deplore
the loss to my native city (where for two centuries the manufacture
of stringed instruments formed an active and profitable trade) of
the masterpieces of its renowned Violin-makers, together with the
drawings, moulds, and patterns, the value of which would be inestimable
to those practising the art. Is it not possible to find a citizen
to do honour to himself and his city by securing the collection
of instruments, models, and forms brought together by Count Cozio
di Salabue, before the treasure be lost to Italy? I have the authority
of Count Cozio to grant to such a patron every facility for the
purchase and transfer of the collection, conditionally that the
object be to resuscitate the art of Violin-making in Cremona, which
desire alone prompted the Count in forming the collection."
These interesting remarks were written in the year 1823, with a
view to their publication at the end of the account of Italian Violin-makers
which Lancetti purposed publishing. As the work did not see the
light, the appeal of the first writer on the subject of Italian
Violins was never heard. Had it been, in all probability Cremona
would at this moment have been in possession of the most remarkable
collection of instruments and models ever brought together, and
be maintaining in at least some measure the prestige belonging to
its past in Violin-making. A word or two must
be said upon the famous varnish of the Italians, which has hitherto
baffled all attempts to solve the mystery of its formation. Every
instrument belonging to the school of Cremona has it, more or less,
in all its marvellous beauty, and to these instruments the resolute
investigator turns, promising himself the discovery of its constituent
parts. The more its lustre penetrates his soul, the more determined
become his efforts. As yet, however, all such praiseworthy researches
have been futile, and the composition of the Cremonese varnish remains
a secret lost to the world—as much so as the glorious ruby
lustre of Maestro Giorgio, and the blue so coveted by connoisseurs
of china. Mr. Charles Reade truly says: "No wonder, then, that
many Violin-makers have tried hard to discover the secret of this
varnish: many chemists have given anxious days and nights to it.
More than once, even in my time, hopes have run high, but only to
fall again. Some have even cried 'Eureka' to the public; but the
moment others looked at their discovery and compared it with the
real thing, 'Inextinguishable
laughter shook the skies.' At last despair has
succeeded to all that energetic study, and the varnish of Cremona
is sullenly given up as a lost art." Declining, therefore,
all speculation as to what the varnish is or what it is not, or
any nostrums for its re-discovery, we will pass on at once to the
description of the different Italian varnishes, which may be divided
into four distinct classes, viz., the Brescian, Cremonese, Neapolitan,
and Venetian. These varnishes are quite separable in one particular,
which is, the depth of their colouring; and yet three of them, the
Brescian, Cremonese, and Venetian, have to all appearance a common
basis. This agreement may be accounted for with some show of reason
by the supposition that there must have been a depot in each city
where the varnish was sold in an incomplete form, and that the depth
of colour used, or even the means adopted for colouring, rested
with the maker of the instrument. If we examine the Brescian varnish,
we find an almost complete resemblance between the material of Gasparo
da Sal� and that of his coadjutors, the colouring only being different.
Upon turning to the Cremonese, we find that Guarneri, Stradivari,
Carlo Bergonzi, and a few others, used varnish having the same characteristics,
but, again, different in shade; possibly the method of laying it
upon the instrument was peculiar to each maker. Similar facts are
observable in the Venetian specimens. The varnish of Naples, again,
is of a totally different composition, and as it was chiefly in
vogue after the Cremonese was lost, we may conclude that it was
probably produced by the Neapolitan makers for their own need. If we reflect for
a moment upon the extensive use which these makers made of the Cremonese
varnish, it is reasonable to suppose that it was an ordinary commodity
in their days, and that there was then no secret in the matter at
all. To account for its sudden disappearance and total loss is,
indeed, not easy. After 1760, or even at an earlier date, all trace
of it is obliterated. The demand for it was certainly not so great
as it had been, but quite sufficient to prevent the supply from
dying out had it been possible. The problem of its sudden disappearance
may, perhaps, be accounted for without overstepping the bounds of
possibility, if we suppose that the varnish was composed of a particular
gum quite common in those days, extensively used for other purposes
besides the varnishing of Violins, and thereby caused to be a marketable
article. Suddenly, we will suppose, the demand for its supply ceased,
and the commercial world troubled no further about the matter. The
natural consequence would be non-production. It is well known that
there are numerous instances of commodities once in frequent supply
and use, but now entirely obsolete and extinct. While, however, our
attention has been mainly directed to the basis of the celebrated
varnish, it must not be supposed that its colouring is of no importance.
In this particular each maker had the opportunity of displaying
his skill and judgment, and probably it was here, if anywhere, that
the secret rested. The gist of the matter, then, is simply that
the varnish was common to all, but the colouring and mode of application
belonged solely to the maker, and hence the varied and independent
appearance of each separate instrument. With regard, however, to
the general question as to what the exact composition of the gum
was or was not, I shall hazard no further speculation, and am profoundly
conscious of the fact that my present guesses have gained no nearer
approaches to the re-discovery of the buried treasure. A description, however,
of the various Italian varnishes may not be inappropriate. The Brescian
is mostly of a rich brown colour and soft texture, but not so clear
as the Cremonese. The Cremonese is of various shades, the early
instruments of the school being chiefly amber-coloured, afterwards
deepening into a light red of charming appearance, later still into
a rich brown of the Brescian type, though more transparent, and
frequently broken up, while the earlier kinds are velvet-like. The
Venetian is also of various shades, chiefly light red, and exceedingly
transparent. The Neapolitan varnish (a generic term including that
of Milan and a few other places) is very clear, and chiefly yellow
in colour, but wanting the dainty softness of the Cremonese. It
is quite impossible to give such a description of these varnishes
as will enable the reader at once to recognise them; the eye must
undergo considerable exercise before it can discriminate the various
qualities; practice, however, makes it so sharp that often from
a piece of varnishing the size of a shilling it will obtain evidence
sufficient to decide upon the rank of the Violin. And here, before
we dismiss the subject of the varnish, another interesting question
occurs: What is its effect, apart from the beauty of its appearance,
upon the efficiency of the instrument? The idea that the varnish
of a Violin has some influence upon its tone has often been ridiculed,
and we can quite understand that it must appear absurd to those
who have not viewed the question in all its bearings. Much misconception
has arisen from pushing this theory about the varnish either too
far or not far enough. What seems sometimes to be implied by enthusiasts
is, that the form of the instrument is of little importance provided
the varnish is good, which amounts to saying that a common Violin
may be made good by means of varnishing it. The absurdity of such
a doctrine is self-evident. On the other hand, there are rival authorities
who attach no importance to varnish in relation to tone. That the
varnish does influence the tone there is strong proof, and to make
this plain to the reader should not be difficult. The finest varnishes
are those of oil, and they require the utmost skill and patience
in their use. They dry very slowly, and may be described as of a
soft and yielding nature. The common varnish is known as spirit
varnish; it is easily used and dries rapidly, in consideration of
which qualities it is generally adopted in these days of high pressure.
It may be described as precisely the reverse of the oil varnish;
it is hard and unyielding. Now a Violin varnished with fine oil
varnish, like all good things, takes time to mature, and will not
bear forcing in any way. At first the instrument is somewhat muffled,
as the pores of the wood have become impregnated with oil. This
makes the instrument heavy both in weight and sound; but as time
rolls on the oil dries, leaving the wood mellowed and wrapped in
an elastic covering which yields to the tone of the instrument and
imparts to it much of its own softness. We will now turn to spirit
varnish. When this is used a diametrically opposite effect is produced.
The Violin is, as it were, wrapped in glass, through which the sound
passes, imbued with the characteristics of the varnish. The result
is, that the resonance produced is metallic and piercing, and well
calculated for common purposes; if, however, richness of tone be
required, spirit-varnished instruments cannot supply it. From these
remarks the reader may gather some notion of the vexed question
of varnish in relation to tone, and be left to form his own opinion. The chief features
of the Italian School of Violin-makers having been noticed, it only
remains to be said that the following list of makers is necessarily
incomplete. This defect arises chiefly from old forgeries. Labels
used as the trade marks of many deserving makers have from time
to time been removed from their lawful instruments in order that
others bearing a higher marketable value might be substituted. In
the subjoined list will be found all the great names, and every
care has been taken to render it as complete as possible. Several
names given are evidently German, most of which belong to an early
period, and are chiefly those in connection with the manufacture
of Lutes and Viols in Italy. These are included in the Italian list,
in order to show that many Germans were engaged in making stringed
instruments in Italy, about the period when Tenor and Contralto
Viols with four strings were manufactured there—a circumstance
worthy of note in connection with the history of Viol and Violin
making in Italy, bearing in mind that four-string Viols were used
in Germany when Italy used those having six strings.
Italian Makers ABATI, Giambattista,
Modena, about 1775 to 1793. ACEVO, Saluzzo. Reference
is made in the "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens"
to this maker having been a pupil of Gioffredo Cappa, and M. F�tis
mentions his having seen a Viol da Gamba dated 1693 of this make,
which belonged to Marin Marais, the famous performer on the Viol. ALBANESI, Sebastiano,
Cremona, 1720-1744. The pattern is bold and the model flat. Although
made at Cremona, they do not properly belong to the school of that
place, having the characteristics of Milanese work. The varnish
is quite unlike that of Cremona. ALBANI, Paolo, Palermo,
1650-80. Is said to have been a pupil of Niccol� Amati. The pattern
is broad and the work carefully executed. ALESSANDRO, named
"Il Veneziano," 16th century. ALETZIE, Paolo, Munich,
1720-36. He made chiefly Tenors and Violoncellos, some of which
are well-finished instruments. The varnish is inferior, both as
regards quality and colour. The characteristics of this maker are
German, and might be classed with that school. ALVANI, Cremona.
Is said to have made instruments in imitation of those of Giuseppe
Guarneri. AMATI, Andrea, Cremona.
The date of birth is unknown. It is supposed to have occurred about
1520. M. F�tis gave this date from evidence furnished by the list
of instruments found in the possession of the banker Carlo Carli,
which belonged to Count Cozio di Salabue. Mention is made of a Rebec,
attributed to Andrea Amati, dated 1546. Upon reference to the MSS.
of Lancetti, I find the following account of the Rebec: "In
the collection of the said Count there exists also a Violin believed
to be by Andrea Amati, with the label bearing the date 1546, which
must have been strung with only three strings, and which at that
epoch was called Rebec by the French. The father of Mantegazza altered
the instrument into one of four strings, by changing the neck and
scroll." From these remarks we gather that the authorship of
this interesting Violin is doubtful. There is, however, some show
of evidence to connect Andrea Amati with Rebecs and Geigen, in the
notable fact that most of his Violins are small, their size being
that known as three-quarter, which was, I am inclined to believe,
about the size of the instruments which the four-stringed Violin
succeeded. As to the time when Andrea Amati worked, I am of opinion
that it was a little later than has hitherto been stated. We have
evidence of his being alive in the year 1611, from an entry recently
discovered in the register of the parish in which Andrea Amati lived,
to the effect that his second wife died on April 10, 1611, and that
Andrea was then living. The discovery of this entry (together with
many important and interesting ones to which I shall have occasion
to refer) we owe to the patience and industry of Monsignor Gaetano
Bazzi, Canon of the Cathedral of Cremona. Andrea Amati claims attention
not so much on account of his instruments, as from his being regarded
as the founder of the school of Cremona. There is no direct evidence
as to the name of the master from whom he learnt the art of making
stringed instruments. If his work be carefully examined, it will
appear that the only maker to whose style it can be said to bear
any resemblance is Gasparo da Sal�, and it is possible that the
great Brescian may have instructed him in his art. It is unfortunate
that there are no data for our guidance in the matter. These men
often, like their brothers in Art, the painters of olden times,
began to live when they were dead, and their history thus passed
without record. Andrea Amati may possibly have been self-taught,
but there is much in favour of the view given above on this point.
His early works are so Brescian in character as to cause them to
be numbered with the productions of that school. For a general designation
of the instruments of this maker the following notes may suffice.
The work is carefully executed. The model is high, and, in consequence,
lacks power of tone; but the Violins possess a charming sweetness.
The sound-hole is inelegant, has not the decision of Gasparo da
Sal�, although belonging to his style, and is usually broad. His
varnish may be described as deep golden, of good quality. His method
of cutting his material was not uniform, but he seems to have had
a preference for cutting his backs in slab form, according to the
example set for the most part by the Brescian makers. The sides
were also made in a similar manner, the wood used being both sycamore
and that known to makers as pear-tree. The instruments of Andrea
Amati are now very scarce. Among the famous instruments of this
maker were twenty-four Violins (twelve large and twelve small pattern),
six Tenors, and eight Basses, made for Charles IX., which were kept
in the Chapel Royal, Versailles, until October, 1790, when they
disappeared. These were probably the finest instruments by Andrea
Amati. On the backs were painted the arms of France and other devices,
with the motto, Pietate et Justitia. In the "Archives
Curieuses de l'Histoire de France," one Nicolas Delinet, a
member of the French King's band, appears to have purchased in 1572
a Cremona Violin for his Majesty, for which he paid about ten pounds—a
large sum, it must be confessed, when we think of its purchasing
power in the sixteenth century. Mr. Sandys, who cites this curious
entry, rightly conjectures it may have included incidental expenses.
No mention is made of the maker of the Violin in question; we find,
however, that in the collection of instruments which belonged to
Sir William Curtis there was a Violoncello having the arms of France
painted on the back, together with the motto above noticed. The
date of the instrument was 1572. We may therefore assume that the
Violin purchased by Nicolas Delinet in the same year was the work
of Andrea Amati, and belonged to the famous Charles IX. set. AMATI, Niccol�, Cremona,
brother of Andrea. Very little is known of this maker or of his
instruments. AMATI, Antonio and
Girolamo, sons of Andrea Amati, Cremona.There does not exist certain
evidence as to the date of the birth and death of Antonio Amati.
We have information of the dates on which his brother Girolamo died
in extracts from parish registers; also the date of his marriages,
which took place in the year 1576, and on May 24, 1584. By his second
wife, Girolamo had a family of nine children; the fifth child was
Niccol�, who became the famous Violin-maker. The mother of Niccol�
died of the plague on October 27, 1630, and her husband, Girolamo,
died of the same disease six days later, viz., November 2, 1630,
and was buried on the same day. Girolamo is described in the register
as "Misser Hieronimo Amati detto il leutaro della vic di S.
Faustino" (viz., maker to the Church). Vincenzo Lancetti states
that "Count Cozio kept a register of all the instruments seen
by him, from which it appeared that the earliest reliable date of
the brothers Amati is 1577, and that they worked together until
1628; that Antonio survived Jerome and made instruments until after
the year 1648—a fine Violin bearing the last-named date having
been recently seen with the name of Antonio alone." This information
serves in some measure to set at rest much of the uncertainty relative
to the period when these makers lived. These skilful makers produced
some of the most charming specimens of artistic work. To them we
are indebted for the first form of the instrument known as "Amatese."
The early efforts of the brothers Amati have many of the characteristics
belonging to the work of their father Andrea; their sound-hole is
similar to his, and in keeping with the Brescian form, and the model
which they at first adopted is higher than that of their later and
better instruments. Although these makers
placed their joint names in their Violins, it must not be supposed
that each bore a proportionate part of the manufacture in every
case; on the contrary, there are but few instances where such association
is made manifest. The style of each was distinct, and one was immeasurably
superior to the other. Antonio deviated but little from the teaching
of his father. The sound-holes even of his latest instruments partake
of the Brescian type, and the model is the only particular in which
it may be said that a step in advance is traceable; here he wisely
adopted a flatter form. His work throughout, as regards finish,
is excellent. Girolamo Amati possessed
in a high degree the attributes of an artist. He was richly endowed
with that rare power—originality. It is in his instruments
that we discover the form of sound-hole which Niccol� Amati improved,
and, after him, the inimitable Stradivari perfected. Girolamo Amati
ignored the pointed sound-hole and width in the middle portions
observable in his predecessor's Violins, and designed a model of
extremely elegant proportions. How graceful is the turn of the sound-hole
at both the upper and lower sections! With what nicety and daintiness
are the outer lines made to point to the shapely curve! Niccol�
Amati certainly improved even upon Girolamo's achievements, but
he did not add more grace; and the essential difference between
the instruments of the two is, that there is more vigour in the
sound-hole of Niccol� than that of his father Girolamo. The purfling of the
brothers Amati is very beautifully executed. The scrolls differ
very much, and in the earlier instruments of these makers are of
a type anterior to that of the bodies. Further, the varnish on the
earlier specimens is deeper in colour than that found on the later
ones, which have varnish of a beautiful orange tint, sparingly laid
on, and throwing up the markings of the wood with much distinctness.
The material used by these makers and the mode of cutting it also
varies considerably. In some specimens we find that they used backs
of the slab form; in others, backs worked whole; in others, backs
divided into two segments. The belly-wood is in every case of the
finest description. The tone is far more powerful than that of the
instruments of Andrea, and this increase of sound is obtained without
any sacrifice of the richness of the quality. AMATI, Niccol�, Cremona,
born December 3, 1596, died April 12, 1684. Son of Girolamo Amati.
It is gratifying in the notice of this famous Violin-maker to be
able to supply dates of his birth, marriage, and death. Niccol�
was christened on December 6, 1596. His marriage took place on May
23, 1645, and it is interesting to record that his pupil Andrea
Guarneri witnessed the ceremony, and signed the register. The information
recently supplied by Canon Bazzi of Cremona, relative to the pupils
and workmen of Niccol� Amati, who were duly registered in the books
of the parish of SS. Faustino and Giovita, is fraught with interest.
It seems to carry us within the precincts, if not into the workshop,
of the master. Andrea Guarneri heads the list in the year 1653,
age twenty-seven, and married; next comes Leopoldo Todesca, age
twenty-eight; and Francesco Mola, age twelve. In the following year
Leopoldo Todesca appears to have been the only name registered as
working with Amati. In the year 1666 we have the name Giorgio Fraiser,
age eighteen. In 1668 no names of workmen seem to have been registered.
In 1680 the name of Girolamo Segher appears, age thirty-four, and
Bartolommeo Cristofori, age thirteen. In 1681 another name occurs,
namely Giuseppe Stanza, a Venetian, age eighteen. In the following
year the only name entered was that of Girolamo Segher, age thirty-six.
Niccol� Amati was the greatest maker in his illustrious family,
and the finest of his instruments are second only to those of his
great pupil, Antonio Stradivari. His early efforts have all the
marks of genius upon them, and clearly show that he had imbibed
much of the taste of his father Girolamo. He continued for some
time to follow the traditional pattern of the instruments, with
the label of Antonius and Hieronymus Amati, and produced many Violins
of small size, of which a large number are still extant. He appears
to have laboured assiduously during these early years, with the
view of making himself thoroughly acquainted with every portion
of his art. We find several instances in which he has changed the
chief principles in construction (particularly such as relate to
the arching and thicknesses), and thereby shown the intention which
he had from the first of framing a new model entirely according
to the dictates of his own fancy. The experienced eye may trace
the successive steps taken in this direction by carefully examining
the instruments dating from about 1645 downwards. Prior to this
period, there is a peculiarly striking similarity in his work and
model to that of his father, but after this date we can watch the
gradual change of form and outline which culminated in the production
of those exquisite works of the art of Violin-making known as "grand
Amatis"—a name which designates the grand proportions
of the instruments of this later date. It may be said that the maker
gained his great reputation from these famous productions. They
may be described as having an outline of extreme elegance, in the
details of which the most artistic treatment is visible. The corners
are drawn out to points of singular fineness, and this gives them
an appearance of prominence which serves to throw beauty into the
entire work. The model is raised somewhat towards the centre, dipping
rather suddenly from the feet of the bridge towards the outer edge,
and forming a slight groove where the purfling is reached, but not
the exaggerated scoop which is commonly seen in the instruments
of the many copyists. This portion of the design has formed the
subject of considerable discussion among the learned in the Violin
world, the debatable points being the appearance of this peculiarity
and its acoustic effect. As regards the former question, the writer
of these pages feels convinced that the apparent irregularity is
in perfect harmony with the general outline of the great Amati's
instrument; and it pleases the eye. From the acoustical point of
view, it may be conceded that it does not tend to increase of power;
but, on the other hand, probably, the sweetness of tone so common
to the instruments of Niccol� Amati must be set to its credit; for,
in proportion as the form is departed from, the sweetness is found
to decrease. The sound-hole has all the character of those of the
preceding Amati, together with increased boldness; in fact, it is
a repetition of that of Girolamo, with this exception. The sides
are a shade deeper than those of the brothers Amati. The scroll
is exquisitely cut. Its outline is perhaps a trifle contracted,
and thus is robbed of the vigour which it would otherwise possess.
From this circumstance it differs from the general tenor of the
body, which is certainly of broad conception. The maker would seem
to have been aware of this defect, if we may judge from the difference
of form given to his earlier scrolls, as compared with those of
a later date, in which he seems to have attempted to secure increased
boldness, as more in keeping with the character of the body of the
instrument. It must be acknowledged, however, that these efforts
did not carry him far enough. The surface of the scroll is usually
inclined to flatness. The wood used by Niccol� Amati for his grand
instruments is of splendid quality, both as regards acoustical requirements
and beauty of appearance. The grain of some of his backs has a wave-like
form of much beauty, others have markings of great regularity, giving
to the instrument a highly finished appearance. The bellies are
of a soft silken nature, and usually of even grain. A few of them
are of singular beauty, their grain being of a mottled character,
which, within its transparent coat of varnish, flashes light here
and there with singular force. The colour of the varnish varies
in point of depth; sometimes it is of a rich amber colour, at others
reddish-brown, and in a few instances light golden-red. These, then, are
the instruments which are so highly esteemed, and which form one
of the chief links in the Violin family. The highest praise must
be conceded to the originator of a design which combines extreme
elegance with utility; and, simple as the result may appear, the
successful construction of so graceful a whole must have been attended
with rare ingenuity and persevering labour. Here, again, is evidence
of the master mind, never resting, ever seeking to improve—evidence,
too, that mere elaboration of work was not the sole aim of the Cremonese
makers. They designed and created as they worked, and their success,
which no succeeding age has aspired to rival, entitles them to rank
with the chief artists of the world. On the form of the
instrument known as the "grand Amati" Stradivari exerted
all the power of his early years; and the fruits of his labours
are, in point of finish, unsurpassed by any of his later works.
Where Niccol� Amati failed, Stradivari conquered; and particularly
is this victory to be seen in the scrolls of his instruments during
the first period, which are masterpieces in themselves. How bold
is the conception, how delicate the workmanship, what a marvel of
perfection the sound-hole! But as these Violins are noticed under
the head of "Stradivari," it is unnecessary to enter into
details here. Beside Stradivari, many makers of less importance
followed the "grand Amati" pattern, among whom may be
mentioned Jacobs, of Amsterdam, who takes a prominent place as a
copyist. The truthfulness of these copies, as regards the chief
portions of the instrument, is singularly striking, so much so,
indeed, as to cause them to be frequently mistaken for originals
by those who are not deeply versed in the matter. The points of
failure in these imitations may be cited as the scroll and sound-hole.
The former lacks ease, and seems to defy its author to hide his
nationality. The scroll has ever proved the most troublesome portion
of the Violin to the imitator. It is here, if anywhere, that he
must drop the mask and show his individuality, and this is remarkably
the case in the instance above mentioned. A further difference between
Amati and Jacobs lies in the circumstance that the latter invariably
used a purfling of whalebone. Another copyist of Amati was Grancino.
As the varnish which he used was of a different nature from that
of his original, his power of imitation must be considered to be
inferior to that of some others. Numerous German makers, whose names
will be found under the "German School," were also liege
subjects of Amati, and copied him with much exactness; so also,
last, but not least, our own countrymen, Forster, Banks, and Samuel
Gilkes. Lancetti, writing
of Niccol� Amati in 1823, says: "Some masterpieces by him still
remain in Italy, among which is the Violin dated 1668, in the collection
of Count Cozio. It is in perfect preservation, and for workmanship,
quality, and power of tone far surpasses the instruments of his
predecessors." The same writer remarks that "Niccol� Amati
put his own name to his instruments about 1640." It was upon
a Violoncello of this make that Signor Piatti played when he first
appeared at the concert of the Philharmonic Society, on June 24,
1844. The instrument had been presented to him by Liszt, and is
now in the possession of the Rev. Canon Hudson. In an entry in the
Cathedral Register at Cremona, the name of the wife of Niccol� Amati
is given as Lucrezia Paliari. The meagreness of accounts of a documentary
character in relation to the famous makers of Cremona naturally
renders every contribution of the kind of some value. The following
extract, taken from the State documents in connection with the Court
of Modena, serves to indicate the degree of esteem in which the
instruments of Niccol� Amati were held during his lifetime, in comparison
with those of his contemporary and pupil, Francesco Ruggieri. Tomaso
Antonio Vitali, the famous Violinist, who was the director of the
Duke of Modena's Orchestra, addressed his patron to this effect:
"Please your most Serene Highness, Tomaso Antonio Vitali, your
highness's most humble servant, bought of Francesco Capilupi, through
the agency of the Rev. Ignazio Paltrineri, for the price of twelve
doublons, a Violin, and paid such price on account of its having
the name inside of Niccol� Amati, a maker of great repute in his
profession. The petitioner has since found that this Violin has
been wrongly named, as underneath the label is the signature of
Francesco Ruggieri detto il Pero, a maker of less credit, whose
Violins do not scarcely attain the price of three doublons." Vitali
closes his letter with an appeal to the Duke for assistance to obtain
redress. AMATI, Girolamo,
Cremona, born 1649, third son of Niccol�. The labels which I have
seen in a Violin and a Tenor bear the name "Hieronymus Amati,"
and describe the maker as the son of Niccol�. He was born on February
26, 1649, married in 1678. In 1736 he, together with his family,
removed to another parish, as shown by the original extract from
the books of the Cathedral at Cremona, sent by Canon Manfredini
to Lancetti. Girolamo Amati died in the year 1740. There appears
to have been some doubt as to whether Girolamo Amati, the son of
Niccol�, made Violins, according to Lancetti. He says, "Those
seen with his label, dated between 1703 and 1723, were ascribed
by some to Sneider, of Pavia, and by others to J. B. Rogeri, of
Brescia." In a letter of Count Cozio di Salabue to Lancetti,
dated January 3, 1823, he states that "in May, 1806, Signor
Carlo Cozzoni gave an old Amati Violin for repair to the Brothers
Mantegazza, dealers and restorers of musical instruments, in Milan,
and upon their removing the belly they were pleased to discover,
written at the base of the neck, 'Revisto e coretto da me Girolamo
figlio di Niccol� Amati, Cremona, 1710.'" In some instances
the instruments of this maker do not resemble those of Niccol� Amati,
or indeed those of the Amati family. The sound-holes are straight,
and the space between them is somewhat narrow. In others there is
merit of a high order—the pattern is large, broad between
the sound-holes, and very flat in model, and resembling the form
of Stradivari rather than that of Amati. These differences are accounted
for by the fact made known by Lancetti, that the tools and patterns
of Niccol� Amati passed into the possession of Stradivari, and are
therefore included with those now in the keeping of Count Cozio's
descendant, the Marquis Dalla Valle. The varnish of Girolamo Amati
shows signs of decadence; in some instances, however, we find it
soft and transparent. The few which have this quality of varnish
I am inclined to think were made in the time of Niccol�, since the
instruments of a later date have a coating of varnish of an inferior
kind. This maker—as with the Bergonzis—seems, therefore,
to have been either ignorant of his parent's mode of making superior
varnish, or was unable to obtain the same kind or quality of ingredients.
With Girolamo closes the history of the family of the Amati as Violin-makers.
Girolamo had a son, Niccol� Giuseppe, born in 1684, who removed
with his father to another parish in 1736, as mentioned above, but
he was not a maker of Violins. AMBROSI, Pietro,
Rome and Brescia, about 1730. Average merit. The workmanship resembles
that of Balestrieri, as seen in the inferior instruments of that
maker. ANSELMO, Pietro,
Cremona, 1701. The instruments of this maker partake of the Ruggeri
character. The varnish is rich in colour and of considerable body.
Scarce. I have met with two excellent Violoncellos by this maker.
Anselmo is said to have worked also in Venice. ANTONIAZZI, Gaetano,
Cremona, 1860. The work is passable, but the form faulty. The sound-holes
are not properly placed. ANTONIO OF BOLOGNA
(Antonius Bononiensis). There is a Viol da Gamba by this maker at
the Academy of Music, Bologna. ANTONIO, Ciciliano,
an Italian maker of Viols. A specimen exists at the Academy of Bologna,
without date. ASSALONE, Gasparo,
Rome, 18th century. The model is high and the workmanship rough.
Thin yellow varnish. BAGONI, Luigi (or
Bajoni), Milan, from about 1840. Was living in 1876. BAGATELLA, Antonio,
Padua, made both Violins and Violoncellos, a few of which have points
of merit. He wrote a pamphlet in 1782 on a method of constructing
Violins by means of a graduated perpendicular line similar to Wettengel's;
but no benefit has been derived from it. BAGATELLA, Pietro,
Padua, is mentioned as a maker who worked about 1760. BALESTRIERI, Tommaso,
middle of the 18th century. Said to have been a pupil of Stradivari,
which is probable. The instruments of Balestrieri may be likened
to those of Stradivari which were made during the last few years
of his life, 1730-37. The form of both is similar, and the ruggedness
observable in the latter instruments is found, but in a more marked
degree, in those of Balestrieri. These remarks, however, must not
be considered to suggest that comparison can fairly be made between
these two makers in point of merit, but merely to point out a general
rough resemblance in the character of their works. The absence of
finish in the instruments of Tommaso Balestrieri is in a measure
compensated by the presence of a style full of vigour. The wood
which he used varies very much. A few Violins are handsome, but
the majority are decidedly plain. The bellies were evidently selected
with judgment, and have the necessary qualities for the production
of good tone. The varnish seems to have been of two kinds, one resembling
that of Guadagnini, the other softer and richer in colour. The tone
may be described as large and very telling, and when the instrument
has had much use there is a richness by no means common. It is singular
that these instruments are more valued in Italy than they are either
in England or France. BALESTRIERI, Pietro,
Cremona, about 1725. BASSIANO, Rome. Lute-maker.
1666. BELLOSIO, Anselmo,
Venice, 18th century. About 1788. Similar to Santo Serafino in pattern,
but the workmanship is inferior; neat purfling; rather opaque varnish. BENTE, Matteo, Brescia,
latter part of the 16th century. M. F�tis mentions, in his "Biographie
Universelle des Musiciens," a Lute by this maker, richly ornamented. BERGONZI, Carlo,
Cremona, 1716-47. Pupil of Antonio Stradivari. That he was educated in Violin-making
by the greatest master of his art is evidenced beyond doubt. In
his instruments may be clearly traced the teachings of Stradivari.
The model, the thicknesses, and the scroll, together with the general
treatment, all agree in betokening that master's influence. Giuseppe
Guarneri del Ges� here stands in strong contrast with Bergonzi.
All writers on the subject of Violins assume that Guarneri was instructed
by Stradivari, a statement based upon no reasons (for none have
ever been adduced), and apparently a mere repetition of some one's
first guess or error. As before remarked, Carlo Bergonzi, in his
work, and in the way in which he carries out his ideas, satisfactorily
shows the source whence his early instructions were derived, and
may be said to have inscribed the name of his great master, not
in print, but in the entire body of every instrument which he made.
This cannot be said of Giuseppe Guarneri. On the contrary, there
is not a point throughout his work that can be said to bear any
resemblance to the sign manual of Stradivari. As this interesting
subject is considered at length in the notice of Giuseppe Guarneri,
it is unnecessary to make further comment in this place. The instruments of
Carlo Bergonzi are justly celebrated both for beauty of form and
tone, and are rapidly gaining the appreciation of artistes and amateurs.
Commercially, no instruments have risen more rapidly than those
of this maker; their value has continuously increased within recent
years, more particularly in England, where their merits were earliest
acknowledged—a fact which certainly reflects much credit upon
our connoisseurs. In France they had a good character years ago,
and have been gaining rapidly upon their old reputation, and now
our neighbours regard them with as much favour as we do. They possess tone
of rare quality, are for the most part extremely handsome, and,
last and most important of all, their massive construction has helped
them, by fair usage and age, to become instruments of the first
order. The model of Bergonzi's Violins is generally flat, and the
outline of his early efforts is of the Stradivari type; but later
in life, he, in common with other great Italian makers, marked out
a pattern for himself from which to construct. The essential difference
between these two forms lies in the angularity of the latter. It
would be very difficult to describe accurately the several points
of deviation unless the reader could handle the specimens for himself
and have ocular demonstration; the upper portion from the curve
of the centre bouts is increased, and, in consequence, the sound-holes
are placed slightly lower than in the Stradivari model. Bergonzi
was peculiar in this arrangement, and he seldom deviated from it.
Again, increased breadth is given to the lower portion of the instrument,
and in consequence the centre bouts are set at a greater angle than
is customary. The sound-hole may be described as an adaptation of
the characteristics of both Stradivari and Guarneri, inclining certainly
more to those of the former. As a further peculiarity, it is to
be noticed that the sound-holes are set nearer the edge than is
the case in the instruments of either of the makers named. Taken
as a whole, Bergonzi's design is rich in artistic feeling, and one
which he succeeded in treating with the utmost skill. Carlo Bergonzi furnishes
us with another example of the extensive research with which the
great Cremonese makers pursued their art, and a refutation of the
common assertion that these men worked and formed by accident rather
than by judgment. The differences of the two makers mentioned above,
as regards form, are certainly too wide to be explained away as
a mere accident. It is further necessary to take into consideration
the kind of tone belonging to these instruments respectively. If
Bergonzi's instruments be compared with those of his master, Stradivari,
or of Guarneri del Ges�, the appreciable difference to be found
will amount to this, that in Bergonzi's instruments there is a just
and exact combination of the qualities of both the other two makers
named. Is it not, therefore, reasonable to conclude that Carlo Bergonzi
was fully alive to the merits of both Stradivari and Guarneri, and
deliberately set himself to construct a model that should embrace
in a measure the chief characteristics of both of them? The scroll is deserving
of particular attention. It is quite in keeping with the body of
the instrument, and has been cut with a decision of purpose that
could only have been possessed by a master. It is flatter than usual,
if we trace it from the cheek towards the turn, and is strikingly
bold. Here, again, is the portrait of the character of the maker.
Although by a pupil of Antonio Stradivari, the scroll is thoroughly
distinct from any known production of that maker—it lacks
his fine finish and exact proportion; but, on the other hand, it
has an originality about it which is quite refreshing. The prominent
feature is the ear of the scroll, which being made to stand forth
in bold relief, gives it a broad appearance when looked at from
the front. The work of Bergonzi,
as has been the case with many of his class, has been attributed
to others. Many of his instruments are dubbed "Joseph Guarneri,"
a mistake in identification which arises chiefly from the form of
the sound-hole at the upper and lower portions. There is little
else that can be considered as bearing any resemblance whatever
to the work of Guarneri, and even in this case the resemblance is
very slight. Bergonzi's outline is totally different from that of
Guarneri, and is so distinct and telling that it is sure to impress
the eye of the experienced connoisseur when first seen. The varnish of Bergonzi
is often fully as resplendent as that of Giuseppe Guarneri or Stradivari,
and shows him to have been initiated in the mysteries of its manufacture.
It is sometimes seen to be extremely thick, at other times but sparingly
laid on; often of a deep, rich red colour, sometimes of a pale red,
and again, of rich amber, so that the variation of colour to be
met with in Bergonzi's Violins is considerable. We must concede
that his method of varnishing was scarcely so painstaking as that
of his fellow-workers, if we judge from the clots here and there,
particularly on the deep-coloured instruments; but, nevertheless,
now that age has toned down the varnish, the effect is good. Carlo Bergonzi lived
next door to Stradivari, and I believe the house remained in the
family until a few years since, when it was disposed of. Lancetti remarks:
"From want of information, we have forgotten in the second
volume"—referring to his "Biographical Dictionary,"
part of which was printed in 1820—"to include an estimable
maker named Carlo Bergonzi, who was pupil of Stradivari, and fellow-workman
with his sons. From the list of names and dates collected by Count
Cozio, it appears that Carlo Bergonzi worked by himself from 1719
to 1746. He used generally very fine foreign wood, and a varnish
the quality of that of his master." In the collection of Count
Cozio di Salabue, there were two Violins by Bergonzi, dated 1731
and 1733, and a Violoncello, 1746. We have in this country two remarkable
Violoncellos of this maker. The perfect and unique Double Bass which
Vuillaume purchased of the executors of Luigi
Tarisio is now in the possession of the family of the late Mr. J.
M. Sears, of Boston, U.S. BERGONZI, Michel
Angelo, Cremona, 1730-60. Son of Carlo. The pattern of his instruments
is somewhat varied. Many are large, and others under-sized. The
varnish is hard, and distinct from that associated with Cremonese
instruments.
BERGONZI, Niccol�,
Cremona. Son of the above. He made a great number of Violins of
similar form to those of his father. The wood which he selected
was of a close nature and hard appearance. The varnish is not equal
to that of Carlo; it is thin and cold-looking. The workmanship is
very good, being often highly finished, but yet wanting in character.
The scroll is cramped, and scarcely of the Cremonese type. Lancetti
mentions a Tenor by this maker, dated 1781. In the correspondence
which passed between the grandson of Antonio Stradivari and the
agents of Count Cozio (which is given in these pages), reference
is made to some of the moulds of the great maker being in the keeping
of —— Bergonzi, they having been lent to him, the writer
saying that he would obtain them and put them with the other patterns,
which appears to have been done. These moulds were doubtless lent
to Michel Angelo Bergonzi, and were used by Niccol� as well as his
father, which accounts for the form of their instruments being varied. BERGONZI, Zosimo,
Cremona. Brother of Niccol�. BERGONZI, Carlo,
Cremona, about 1780-1820. Son of Michel Angelo. He made a few Violins, large Stradivarius
form, sound-holes straight and inelegant. BERGONZI, Benedetto,
Cremona, died in 1840. Tarisio learned little points of interest
concerning Stradivari and his contemporaries from Benedetto Bergonzi. BERTASSI, Ambrogio,
Piadena (near Cremona), about 1730. BIANCHI, Niccol�,
Genoa and Nice. Worked until about 1875. BIMBI, Bartolommeo,
Siena, 1753-69. High-built, small pattern, orange-yellow varnish. BODIO, G. B., Venice,
about 1832. Good workmanship; oil varnish, wide purfling. BORELLI, Andrea,
Parma, about 1735. His instruments are little known; they resemble
those of Giuseppe Guadagnini. BRENSIO, Girolamo
(BRENSIUS, Hieronymus), Bologna. Reference has been made to the
Viols of this maker in the first section of this work. BRESCIA, Da, Battista.
A Pochette or Kit of this maker is at the Academy of Music, Bologna,
signed "Baptista Bressano"; the period assigned to it
is the end of the 15th century. BROSCHI, Carlo,
Parma. Carlo Broschi in
Parma, fecit 1732. BUSSETO, Giovanni
M., Cremona, 1540-80. Maker of Viols. M. F�tis mentions, in his
"Biographie des Musiciens," that Busseto derived his name
from Busseto, a borough in the Duchy of Parma, where
he was born. He also mentions a Viol of this maker, dated 1580,
which was found at Milan in 1792. CALCAGNI, Bernardo,
Genoa, about 1740. Neat workmanship, small scroll, flat model, well-cut
sound-holes, Stradivari pattern, orange-red varnish. CALVAROLA, Bartolommeo,
Bergamo, about 1753. The work is neatly executed. These instruments
are somewhat like those of Ruggeri in form. The scroll is weak,
and ill-proportioned. CAMILLI, Camillo,
Mantua, 17—. The form partakes of that of Stradivari; wood
usually of excellent quality. The sound-hole is rather wide and
short. The varnish resembles that of Landolfi, but is less brilliant. CAPPA, Gioffredo,
Cremona, 1644-1717. The dates of birth and death were ascertained
by Dr. Orazio Roggiero, a lawyer of Saluzzo, whose researches set
at rest many doubts and speculations as to this excellent maker
and his period of activity. He was formerly held to be a pupil of
the brothers Amati, but the assumption, having regard to the date
of birth, is untenable. The greater number
of his productions consist of works of high merit. Their likeness
to the instruments of the Amati is in some instances peculiarly
striking, but in others there is a marked dissimilarity. Particularly
is this the case in the form of the sound-hole and scroll. The sound-hole
is sometimes large, and quite out of keeping with the elegant outline
of Amati. The points of difference may be summed up as follows:
the sound-hole is larger, and more obliquely set in the instrument;
the upper portion of the body has a more contracted appearance;
the head, as is the case with most makers, differs most, and, in
this instance, in no way resembles Amati. There are few specimens
of Cappa that bear their original labels; most of them are counterfeit
"Amatis," and hence the great confusion which has arisen
concerning their parentage. Lancetti says: "Foreign professors
and amateurs, and particularly the English—though connoisseurs
of the good and the beautiful—in buying the instruments of
Cappa thought they had acquired those of Amati, the outline and
character of the varnish and the quality of the tone resembling
in some measure the instruments of the Brothers Amati. It is, however,
reserved to a few Italian connoisseurs to distinguish them. Those
of large pattern, and even of medium size, that have not been injured
by unskilful restorers, are scarce, and realise high prices."
These remarks, suggested many years since, by so able a connoisseur
as Count Cozio, possess a peculiar interest, and cannot fail to
interest the reader. As Lancetti remarks, they are of two patterns,
one larger than the other. The large one is, of course, the more
valuable; it is flatter, and altogether better finished. The Violoncellos
of Cappa are among the best of the second-class Italian instruments,
and are well worthy the attention of the professor and amateur.
The varnish is frequently of very rich quality, its colour resembling
that of Amati in many instances. CARCASSI, Francesco,
Florence, about 1758. CARCASSI, Lorenzo,
about 1738. CARCASSI, Tomaso,
worked in partnership with Lorenzo, but also alone, according to
labels. There were several makers of this name. CASINI, Antonio,
Modena. Antonius Casini,
fecit Mutine anno 1680. CASTAGNERI, Andrea,
Paris, about 1735. This Italian maker appears to have settled in
Paris. I have seen a Violin by Castagneri, date 1735; flat model,
bold outline, and varnish of good quality. CASTELLANI, Pietro,
Florence, died about 1820. CASTELLANI, Luigi,
Florence, died 1884. CASTRO, Venice, 1680-1720.
The wood is of good figure generally. The outline is defective;
the middle bouts are too long to be proportionate. Sound-hole roughly
worked. Varnish red, the quality of which is scarcely up to the
Venetian standard. CATENAR, Enrico,
Turin, about 1671. Henricus Catenar,
fecit Taurini anno 167— CELIONIATI, Gian
Francesco, Turin, about 1734. Appears to have copied the form of
Amati. Yellow varnish, good workmanship. CERIN, Marco Antonio,
Venice, end of the eighteenth century. Signed himself as a pupil
of Belosio. Marcus Antonius
Cerin, alumnus Anselmi Belosii, fecit Veneti�, 17— CERUTI, Giovanni
Battista, Cremona, 1755-1817. Ceruti made a large number of Violins
and Violoncellos of the Pattern of Amati. He appears to have been
a prolific workman, his instruments numbering, it is said, about
five hundred. His favourite model was the large Amati. Giovanni
Ceruti succeeded to the business of Lorenzo Storioni in 1790, in
the Via dei Coltellai, near the Piazza St. Domenico. CERUTI, Giuseppe,
son of Giovanni, Cremona, 1787-1860. Was a maker and restorer of
instruments. He is said to have exhibited, at the Paris and other
exhibitions, Violins of good quality. He died at Mantua, in 1860. CERUTI, Enrico, son
of Giuseppe, Cremona, born in 1808, died on October 30, 1883. Enrico
Ceruti is the last of the long line of Cremonese Violin-makers;
there is, in consequence, a peculiar interest attached to him. Independent
of this, however, he is deserving of special notice from his having
been the recipient of the traditional history attending the makers
of Cremona, from Amati to Stradivari and Bergonzi, and from Bergonzi
to Storioni and Ceruti. He was acquainted with Luigi Tarisio and
with Vuillaume, to whom he gave many interesting particulars relative
to the great makers of his native city. The instruments of Enrico
Ceruti are much valued by Italian orchestral players. They are said
to number about three hundred and sixty-five, among which are several
Violoncellos. He exhibited at the London Exhibition of 1862, and
at other exhibitions. The last Violin he made was shown at the Milan
Exhibition, 1881. CRISTOFORI, Bartolommeo,
Padua and Florence, 1667-1731. Apprenticed to Niccol� Amati. Is
best known as the inventor of the "hammer system," and,
therefore, the father of the modern pianoforte. Bow instruments
of his make are rare, but authentic examples are in every way excellent.
A fine Double Bass, dated 1715, is in the museum of the Musical
Academy in Florence. Violoncellos and other instruments are known,
and it is to be regretted that so few specimens are to be met with. CIRCAPA, Tommaso,
Naples, about 1730. COCCO, Cristoforo,
Venice, 1654. A Lute-maker. The Museum of the Paris Conservatoire Nationale
de Musique contains a specimen of this make, which is described
in M. Gustave Chouquet's catalogue of the collection. CONTRERAS, Joseph,
Madrid, 1745-80. This being one of the few Spanish makers, his name
is placed with the Italian, the number of the Spanish being insufficient
for a separate list. The model of this maker is very good and the
workmanship superior. He probably lived In Italy during his early
life, the style being Italian. He was born in Granada, and was called
the Spanish Stradivarius. He died about 1780, and is said to have
been seventy years of age. CORDANO, Jacopo
Filippo, Genoa, about 1774. Jacobus Philipus
Cordanus, fecit Genu� anno sal. 1774. CORNA, Dalla, Brescia,
early maker of Viols, about 1530. COSTA, Pietro Antonio
dalla, Venice and Treviso. The label he used is curious.
He copied the Brothers Amati with much skilfulness. The sound-holes
are like those of the early instruments of the Amati; the varnish
is golden in colour and excellent in quality; the scroll, as usual
with all imitations, is a weak feature, but does not lack originality. DARDELLI, Pietro,
Mantua, about 1500. Is described as a maker of Lutes and Viols.
M. F�tis relates, in his "Biographie des Musiciens," that
the painter Richard, of Lyons, possessed about the year 1807 a beautiful
Lute by this maker, which was made for the Duchess of Mantua. The
instrument is described as richly inlaid with ebony, ivory, and
silver, dated 1497, and having the name "Padre Dardelli."
On the belly the Mantuan arms are represented. M. F�tis was unable
to discover any tidings of this interesting instrument after the
death of Richard. Dardelli was a Franciscan monk at Mantua, and
occupied himself with making musical instruments and inlaying them.
Work of any kind executed under such circumstances is rarely found
to be other than artistic. DESPINE, Alexander,
Turin, nineteenth century. A very good maker; worked with Pressenda,
whose labels his instruments sometimes bear. DIEFFOPRUCHAR, Magno,
Venice, 1612. Lute-maker. An instrument of this make is at the Academy
of Music, Bologna. M. Engel remarks, "There can be no doubt
that we have here the Italianised name of the German Magnus Tieffenbrucker,
who lived in Italy." There appears to be a connection between
these Venetian Lute-makers of this name and Duiffoprugcar of the
sixteenth century. DOMINICELLI, Ferrara,
said to have worked about 1700. DUIFFOPRUGCAR, Gaspar,
Bologna. This famous maker of Viols is said to have settled in Bologna
in the early part of the sixteenth century. He appears to have obtained
much renown as an inlayer of musical instruments, and it is stated
that Francis I., upon the occasion of his visit to Italy in 1515,
prevailed upon the Viol-maker to settle in France. The name of Duiffoprugcar
has been made familiar to us, not so much on account of his merits
as a Viol-maker, but almost wholly on account of his having been
represented as the first maker of the Violin tuned in fifths, and
the representation having been supported by the production of three
Violins signed and dated 1511, 1517, 1519. I saw, about the year
1877, one of these, and was informed by the owner that the others
were almost identical. The instrument bore distinct evidence of
its being a modern French imitation, or rather an ingenious creation
evolved from a myth, which in all probability had its origin in
France. Duiffoprugcar was unquestionably an artist of a high order,
but his abilities appear to have been chiefly directed to the art
of wood-inlaying, rather than to the making of stringed instruments.
He made Viols da Gamba, and he may have made smaller Viols, though
I am not aware of any being in existence; but there is no evidence
whatever to show that he made Violins. FARINATO, Paolo,
Venice, 1695-1725. FICKER, Johann Christian,
Cremona, middle of the 18th century. Although dating from Cremona,
has nothing in common with Cremonese work. FICKER, Johann Gottlieb,
Cremona, 1788. FIORILLO, Giovanni,
Ferrara, 1780. The style is a mixture of German and Italian, the former
preponderating. The sound-hole is an imitation of that of Stainer.
His Violoncellos are among his best instruments. FIORINO, Fiorenzi,
Bologna, about 1685. FREI, Hans, Bologna,
1597. Lute and Viol-maker. There is an instrument of this make at
the Bologna Academy of Music. It is probable there was a family
connection between Hans Frey, of Nuremberg, and this maker. GABRIELLI, Giovanni
Battista, Florence, about the middle of the 18th century. The instruments
of Gabrielli are now becoming better known and appreciated. They
bear evident marks of having been made with extreme care. The model,
unfortunately, is often not all that could be desired, being too
rounded. When this is not the case, the tone is excellent. The wood
is mostly very handsome, and the sides and backs evenly marked.
The varnish is wanting in mellowness, but is very transparent; its
colour is chiefly yellow. The Tenors and Violoncellos are superior
to the Violins. The scroll is neatly cut, but weak in design. The
letters G. B. G. were often branded on the instruments of Gabrielli. GABRIELLI. Other
makers of this name (Antonio, Bartolommeo, Cristoforo) appear to
have dated from Florence. GAFFINO, Giuseppe,
Paris, about 1755. Pupil of Castagneri. GAGLIANO, Alessandro,
Naples, 1695-1730. A pupil of Antonio Stradivari. The Gagliano family
played no unimportant part in the art of Italian Violin-making.
It commences with Alessandro, who imitated his master as regards
the form which he gave to his instruments. Alessandro Gagliano,
upon leaving the workshop of Stradivari, removed to Naples, a city
which afforded him greater scope for the exercise of his talents
than Cremona. With others, he felt that his chance of success was
very small if he remained on ground occupied by the greatest luminaries
of his art. His labours at Naples seem to have been so well rewarded
that he caused his sons to follow his calling. There is evidence
of their having enjoyed what may be termed a monopoly of the Violin
manufacture in and around Naples, there being no record of another
maker of importance in that locality at the same period. To these
makers we are indebted for the Neapolitan School. Although in its
productions we miss the lustrous varnish and handsome wood of Cremona,
Naples has furnished us with many excellent instruments. The works of Alessandro
Gagliano are mostly of large pattern and flat model. If we compare
them with those of his master, the resemblance is not so great as
might be expected, if it be remembered that they are copies, and
not original works. The sound-holes are broader and more perpendicular
than those of Stradivari. The scroll is diminutive, and the turn
much contracted and of a somewhat mean appearance. The workmanship
of the scroll is roughly executed, and points to the conclusion
that Alessandro Gagliano was not gifted with the power of head-cutting.
The character of Gagliano's Violins frequently reminds us of those
by Stradivari made between 1725 and 1730. The wood used for
the backs was generally of a tough nature; the back and sides are
often marked with a broad curl. The bellies are of wide and even
grain, and very resonant. The varnish is quite distinct from that
of Cremona; it is very transparent, and of various shades, chiefly
yellow. GAGLIANO, Gennaro,
Naples, 1720 to about 1758; finely finished. Well-chosen wood, and
excellent form. He sometimes wrote his name in pencil on the inside
of the belly. GAGLIANO, Niccol�,
Naples, son of Alessandro. His Violins and Violoncellos were made
with care, and show that he possessed some amount of originality.
They are not after the pattern of his father's instruments. They
are narrower, and similar to those earlier works of Stradivari which
come between the true "Amatese" and the long form. The
varnish is of a deeper colour than that of Alessandro, and its quality
is not inferior. The scroll is, in some cases, well formed, in others
somewhat grotesque. The model is high. They are sometimes seen ornamented
round the purfling with ebony, diamond and lozenge shape. GAGLIANO, Giovanni
Battista, about 1730. GAGLIANO, Ferdinando,
Naples, son of Niccol�. His instruments are usually excellently
made, and have a varnish of a warmer tint than is met with on the
instruments of the Gagliano family. GAGLIANO, Giuseppe,
Naples, 1780. Son of Ferdinando. GAGLIANO, Giovanni, GAGLIANO, Antonio, GAGLIANO, Raffaele,
Naples. These makers bring the family down to a very recent date
as residents in Naples. The merit belonging to them is of the slightest
kind. Some of our English provincial makers have shown themselves
superior. GALBUSERA, C. A.,
Milan, 1832-47. This maker appears to have attracted attention in
Italy. In a little volume entitled "L'Italie �conomique,"
1847, he is mentioned as a maker who rivals Vuillaume. I am not
acquainted with his instruments. Mention is made of his having made
Violins without corners, and that he applied to the wood a preparation
for the purpose of extracting the resinous particles from it. The
adoption of such means of forcing on maturity makes it unlikely
that he made instruments worthy of notice. GARANI, Michel Angelo,
Bologna, 1681-1720. His Tenors in particular are well-made instruments. GARANI, Niccol�,
Naples. Gagliano type of instrument, usually plain wood. GATINARI, Francesco,
Turin, about 1700. GENNARO, Giacomo.
Worked at Cremona, in the shop of Niccol� Amati, about 1641. His
name is mentioned in the parish registers in Cremona as being employed
by Amati. GERONI, Domenico,
Ostiano (Province of Brescia), dated 1817. GHIDINI, Carlo, Parma,
about 1746. GIBERTINI, Antonio,
Parma, about 1830. Stradivari model, excellent work, deep rose-coloured
varnish. This maker was at times employed by Paganini to repair
or regulate his Violins. GIORGI, Niccol�,
Turin, about 1760. GOBETTI, Francesco
(sometimes called Gobit), Venice, 1690-1715. This is
one of the little-known makers, a fact which may be attributed to
the practice, common some years ago, of removing the original label
of an instrument and substituting another, bearing a name more likely
from its familiarity to command attention. When we see such
Violins bearing the stamp of genius upon them, and reflecting much
credit on the maker, the lovers of the instrument cannot but regret
that the author should have been eclipsed, and deprived of his just
praise. Had the name of Gobetti
been permitted to associate itself with the instruments into which
it was originally placed, they would have been as highly valued
as any belonging to the Venetian school, with the single exception
of Domenico Montagnana. The admirers of that finished maker, Santo
Serafino, may perhaps dispute the justice of this observation; but,
having carefully weighed the merits of both Serafino and Gobetti,
I have no hesitation in awarding to the latter the foremost place.
Gobetti's style is superior, being more Cremonese than Venetian;
and further, his model is preferable. Gobetti has been
considered to have been a pupil of Antonio Stradivari, possibly
with some reason, for his instruments bear a similarity to the early
works of the great master. The instruments of this maker, like those
of many others of his class, have passed for the works of Ruggeri,
and sometimes of Amati. There is a slight likeness about the sound-hole
to the work of Francesco Ruggeri; but to the skilled in such matters,
no feature interchangeable with Amati can be detected. The workmanship is
uniformly neat in execution; the scroll is the least successful
part, being weak in character as compared with the body. The varnish
is equal to any belonging to the Venetian school, and its beauty
is second only to that of Cremona; its colour is generally a pale
red, of considerable transparency. The wood is most handsome. These
Venetians were not a little happy in selecting beautiful wood; in
fact, it is scarcely possible to discover a single Venetian instrument
the wood of which is plain. The tone of Gobetti's work is round,
without great power; but the quality is singularly sweet. GOFRILLER, Matteo,
Venice, about 1700-1735. The workmanship is often good, and the
wood of fine quality. The style is somewhat different from that
we are accustomed to associate with Italy. The tone and character
of the varnish are generally excellent. GOFRILLER, Francesco,
Venice. Brother of the above, with whom he worked. GRAGNANI, Antonio,
Leghorn. Usually branded his initials below the tail-pin. Varnish
somewhat hard; ordinary wood. The tone is often of good quality.
His Violoncellos
are particularly fine instruments; his Tenors also are worthy of
notice. The wood he used was varied, but is, for the most part,
plain. It is curious to observe how various centres of Violin-making
ran upon different qualities of wood. In Venice the handsomest wood
was used, in Milan and Naples the plainest. The commercial importance
of Venice would, of course, draw to it the largest selection of
wood, and thus permit the second and third rate maker to use it,
and at the same rate, probably, as a less handsome material would
cost in cities farther removed. The scroll of Paolo Grancino has
a very decisive character; it is quite distinct from that of the
Amati. From the ear of the scroll the turn is rapidly made, and
has an elongated appearance. GRANCINO, Giovanni,
Milan, 1694-1720. Son of Paolo. The workmanship is smooth, and the
form good. The material of his instruments is of a better nature
than that used by his father. The model is slightly flatter. The
tone is powerful. Varnish mostly yellow. GRANCINO, Giovanni
Battista, Milan, 1690. Son of Giovanni mentioned above. Similar
characteristics. GRANCINO, Francesco.
Son of Giovanni Battista. Here we have the same falling off as in
the case of the Gagliani, a family beginning with artists, and ending
with common workmen. GRULLI, Pietro,
Cremona. Contemporary. GUADAGNINI, Lorenzo,
Cremona, 1695 to about 1740. No matter to which of the Guadagnini
the instrument may owe its origin, if it bears the name, importance
is attached to it, often without due regard to the merits of the
particular specimen. The later members of the family have thus received
attention measured by the excellence of the work of their forefathers.
That this should be so, to a certain extent, can scarcely excite
surprise, nor is it singular in the Italian branch of the art. The
great makers of the Guadagnini family were Lorenzo and Giovanni
Battista. The former has been considered the chief maker; but if
the merits of each be duly weighed, they will be found to be nearly
equal. It is probable that Lorenzo has been looked upon as the principal
maker from the association of his name with that of Antonio Stradivari,
a fact which, it must be granted, lends to it a certain degree of
importance. The instruments of
Lorenzo are exceedingly bold in design, and differ in this respect
from those of Giovanni Battista, which retain much of the delicate
form of Stradivari. Lorenzo frequently changed the form of his sound-hole,
giving it the pointed character of Giuseppe Guarneri in some instances,
and in others retaining the type of sound-hole perfected by his
master. The model is inclined to flatness, the declivity being of
the gentlest kind: the breadth of the design commands admiration.
The scroll is certainly not an imitation of that of Stradivari;
it has considerable originality, and is more attractive on that
account than for its beauty. The varnish is not so brilliant as
that of Giovanni Battista, but possesses a mellowness foreign to
the other members of the family. The tone is powerful, tempered
with a rich quality. Lorenzo Guadagnini
was born at Piacenza, and upon leaving the workshop of his master
returned to his native town, where he remained until about the year
1695, at which period he is said to have removed to Milan. In the
last mentioned city he continued to work until about the year 1740. GUADAGNINI, Giovanni
Battista, Piacenza, 1711-86. Son of Lorenzo Guadagnini. He was born,
according to Count Cozio di Salabue, at Cremona, and Lancetti states
that he worked with his father in Milan. Later he worked at Piacenza,
then at Parma, where he became instrument-maker to the Duke. Upon
the pensions to the artists of the Duke's Court being discontinued
in 1772, he went to Turin, where he died. Count Cozio di Salabue
communicated to Lancetti the following particulars relative to Giovanni
Battista Guadagnini. He says: "He imitated Stradivari, but
avoided close imitation of all detail, and prided himself on not
being a mere copyist." He is said to have excited the jealousy
of other makers, which caused him to move so frequently, but most
likely he offended chiefly with his hasty temper. Many of his instruments
made in Turin between 1773 and 1776 have wood of the handsomest
kind. Count Cozio ordered from him several instruments which he
added to his collection, among them two Tenors and two Violoncellos.
The interest Count Cozio manifested with regard to this maker is
shown in his having obtained from the parish registers the date
of his birth and death. He states that he was born in Cremona in
1711, and died in Turin, September 18, 1786. This last-named date
is in conformity with that of 1785, given to me by the representatives
of the family at Turin, as the last year in which he made instruments.
Lorenzo has been regarded as the only pupil of Stradivari in the
Guadagnini family; but if their respective works be closely examined,
it will be found that those of Giovanni Battista more closely resemble
the instruments of Stradivari than even those of Lorenzo, which
is suggestive of his having, in some way, been brought early under
the great master's influence. It is singular that his early labels
contain no reference to Cremona, whilst on the late ones there is
mention of the famous town, which evidences the correctness of the
statement of Count Cozio relative to his birthplace. It is quite
evident that he considered the model of Stradivari as that to be
followed, and he does not appear to have changed his views on this
point at any time, all his works being in accordance with the teachings
of the great master. Giovanni Battista
was particularly happy in the selection of his wood, it being generally
of the handsomest kind. The backs of his instruments are mostly
found to be divided, the markings of the wood being very regular;
the bellies are of wood well chosen for tone, the varnish very transparent
and of a brilliant colour. The scroll may be described as a rough
imitation of that of Stradivari, and to partake generally of the
character of the Stradivarian scroll from the date of 1728. The
English possess some of the finest specimens of this maker, and
were probably the first to recognise their sterling merits. In the
correspondence which passed between Count Cozio di Salabue and Vincenzo
Lancetti, in the year 1823, the Count says: "The instruments
of G. B. Guadagnini are highly esteemed by connoisseurs and professional
men in Holland and Germany." GUADAGNINI, Gaetano,
Turin. Son of Giovanni Battista. Was both a maker and a repairer
of Violins; it was, however, in the latter capacity that his abilities
were mainly exercised. GUADAGNINI, Giuseppe.
Second son of Giovanni Battista. Worked with his father for some
time at Turin. He ultimately went to Lombardy, and settled in Pavia,
where he made a great number of instruments. The work and character
belonging to these instruments are varied. The model is that of
Stradivari. In some instances the sound-holes partake of the character
of Giuseppe Guarneri. The varnish is inferior to that of his predecessors,
and the wood often hard and plain. Some of his Violins bear the
labels of his father, and were doubtless made when they were living
together. GUADAGNINI, Carlo,
Turin. Son of Gaetano Guadagnini. This maker is chiefly known as
a maker of Guitars. Carlo left three sons, Gaetano, Giuseppe, and
Felice. These are said to have been all makers of Violins, though
they appear to have accomplished but little in that direction, with
the exception of Felice. GUADAGNINI, Felice
(or Felix), about 1835, Turin. Son of Carlo. Excellent work, varnish
rather hard, well-cut scroll. GUADAGNINI, Antonio.
Son of Gaetano and grandson of Carlo, born 1831, died 1881. Worked
with much diligence, and produced a great number of instruments.
His sons Francesco and Giuseppe, the representatives of a long line
of Italian Violin-makers, learned at Turin the art so long associated
with the family name, with a view to their following in the footsteps
of their father Antonio. GUARNERI, Andrea,
Cremona, born about 1626, died 1698. The name of "Guarnerius"
is probably known to every possessor of a Violin throughout the
world. The familiar style is attached to scores of copies and non-copies
every week, and despatched to the four quarters of the globe. Little
did Andrea imagine that he was destined to be the means of lifting
his patronymic of Guarneri to such a giddy height! Andrea Guarneri,
like Andrea Amati, was the pioneer of the family: but for his influence
we might never have had the extraordinary works of his nephew, Giuseppe.
How full of interest would the smallest events of Andrea's workshop
life prove if we could only ascertain them! We know that in early
years he was working in the shop of Niccol� Amati. With what delight
would any record, or even anecdote, of those golden days in the
history of the Violin be received by the lovers of the instrument!
The bare idea that these men were living in daily close converse
is sufficient to awaken interest of a lively nature in the mind
of a lover of Fiddles. Unhappily, however, no Boswell was at hand
to dot down events, of small value when passing, but of great consequence
to after-time. The want of that direct biographical information
which is handed down to us from recorded personal knowledge leads
to the opening of many a mouldy, worm-eaten, and half-forgotten
parish register, wherein we read, in language stiff and statutory,
accounts of departed parishioners having duly performed and executed
divers acts and deeds. These entries often shed much unexpected
light on subjects previously dark or obscured. The pages of the
Cremonese parish register, to which allusion has been made in the
notices of the members of the Amati family, have served this purpose
in some measure. From the same source we have a few interesting
facts concerning Andrea Guarneri. It appears that Niccol� Amati
entered, in the year 1641, the age of his pupil Andrea Guarneri
in the parish rate-book as being fifteen years, thus supplying the
hitherto unknown date of his birth. Again we learn that Andrea Guarneri
does not appear to have been with Niccol� Amati in 1646, but was
so in the year 1653, the register showing that he was at that date
married. There is no further reference to his connection with Niccol�
Amati after the year 1653. Andrea was married, December 31, 1652,
and had seven children. Two of his sons, namely Pietro Giovanni
and Giuseppe Giovan Battista, became Violin-makers. Andrea died
on December 7, 1698, and we learn from the register that he was
buried on the following day near the remains of his wife, in the
Church of St. Domenico, in the same chapel where the body of Antonio
Stradivari was laid forty years later. Andrea Guarneri for
some years worked upon the model of his master, though he afterwards
changed the character of the sound-hole.At the same time the form
of the instrument became flatter, and the scroll showed signs of
originality. The varnish is much varied, but is generally of a light
orange colour of beautiful hue; it sometimes has considerable body,
but when so, lacks the transparency of light-coloured varnishes.
The Violoncellos are of two sizes. The wood in the Violoncellos
is often very plain, but possesses singular tone-producing qualities.
The Violins of this maker are among his finest efforts; the workmanship
is excellent, but has not the fine finish of Amati. GUARNERI, Giuseppe
Giovan Battista, second son of Andrea, born November 25, 1666. This
maker possessed a greater amount of originality than Andrea. His
earliest works evidence that power of thinking for himself which,
later, led him to construct instruments entirely distinct from those
produced by his father. The outline is particularly striking. The
waist of the instrument is narrowed, rapidly widening, however,
from the centre. The result is a curve of much elegance, one of
the points which Giuseppe Guarneri del Ges� appears to have admired,
as he adopted and perfected it. It is here, more particularly, that
a resemblance between this maker and his famous kinsman isto
be traced. There are also other features which will furnish matter
for comment in their proper place. To return to the form given to
the instruments of Guarneri, the son of Andrea: the sound-hole has
a singular combination of the Amati and the Guarneri in its conception.
We have here a reappearance of the pointed form which originated
with the grand old Brescian master, Gasparo da Sal�, and which was
left by him to be revived and perfected by his followers. Andrea's
son, in adopting this long-neglected form, showed much judgment.
It must be admitted that he improved upon it, and left his cousin
an easy task in completing and perfecting it. The method of this
maker with regard to the setting of the sound-holes in his instruments
is peculiar. In his plan they are set in a lower position than is
customary. Carlo Bergonzi followed him in this particular, and also
in placing the hole a trifle nearer the edge of the instrument than
is seen in most instruments. How interesting is it to observe the
salient points wherein each maker seems to have adopted some isolated
feature from a predecessor! The varnish is of
the richest description, and in some instances has been so plentifully
used as to cause it to clot in some places; nevertheless, its rare
qualities are never deadened. He made Violins,
Tenors, and Violoncellos, the latter being very scarce. The wood
used in his Violins and Tenors varies, but may be pronounced as
generally handsome; that of his Violoncellos is, on the contrary,
chiefly plain, and the workmanship somewhat careless, but the tone
is always fine in quality. Guarneri, Joseph, son of Andrea, according
to the parish register, was married on January 4, 1690, and had
six children. GUARNERI, Pietro
Giovanni, Cremona and Mantua, son of Andrea, born February 18, 1655.
In this maker, again, there is much originality, his work, together
with his model, differing entirely from that of his brother, and
in outline from that of his father Andrea. There is increased breadth
between the sound-holes; the sound-hole is rounded and more perpendicular;
the middle bouts are more contracted, and the model is more raised.
The scroll abounds in individuality of design. The ear is brought
out with much effect; the purfling is splendidly executed, the corners
being worked up to that extreme point of delicacy which is characteristic
of the works of Niccol� Amati. The purfling is embedded after the
manner of Amati in his "grand" instruments, but to a greater
extent. The varnish is superb; its quality is of the richest description,
and its transparency unsurpassed. Its colour varies; it is sometimes
of a golden tint, sometimes of a pale red, on which the light plays
with delightful variety. Pietro Guarneri used some of the finest
wood. The bellies are invariably wide in grain and very even. The parish register
supplies the information that Pietro was married in the year 1677.
He appears to have left Cremona for Mantua soon after the year 1698.
He visited Cremona about the period when his father died; in which
year he appears to have acted as god-father at the christening of
his brother Joseph's son Bartolommeo. Pietro returned to Mantua,
and later went to Venice, where he is said to have died at an advanced
age. GUARNERI, Pietro,
Mantua, born 1695. Son of Giuseppe filius Andrea. He followed to
some extent the form of the instruments of his uncle Pietro, from
whom, while in Mantua, he probably learnt his art. The work is very
good, and his productions are well worthy of the Guarnerian name.
The varnish is rich, but not so transparent nor so well laid on
as to come up to the full standard. The scroll is rather weak. GUARNERI, Giuseppe,
Cremona. Better known as Giuseppe del Ges�, his labels having the
cypher upon them. It is not known why he adopted this monogram,
which is that of the Jesuits. It is possible that he belonged to
a fraternity in Cremona, common at that period among Italian tradesmen,
who banded themselves together in various societies bearing religious
titles. This famous maker
of Violins was born at Cremona in the year 1687, and died in or
about 1745. The house of Giuseppe Guarneri is said to have been
No. 5, Piazza S. Domenico, now called Piazza Roma. An extract from the
register proves that Giuseppe Antonio Guarneri, legitimate son of
Giovanni Battista Guarneri and Angela Maria Locadelli, was born
at Cremona on June 8, 1683, and was baptized on the 11th of the
same month, in the parish of San Donato, at the chapel-of-ease of
the cathedral. This extract which
was supposed to refer to the subject of this notice relates to a
child who died in infancy, and it is now satisfactorily settled
that Joseph del Ges� first saw the light on October 16, 1687. The
date of death is merely conjectural, and unsupported by definite
evidence. The father of Guarneri
del Ges�, namely Gio. Battista, was the son of Bernardo, a cousin
of Andrea Guarneri. He does not appear to have had any knowledge
of the manufacture of stringed instruments, and was thus an exception
to the majority of a family which numbered many prominent makers
within it. It has been asserted on all sides that Giuseppe Guarneri
del Ges� was a pupil of Antonio Stradivari, but in every case this
statement has been made without a shadow of proof, either from recorded
fact or analogy. That this bare assertion should have so long remained
unchallenged is a matter of some surprise to the writer of these
pages, who fails to see anything in common between the two makers,
with the exception of the varnish, and perhaps the high finish,
as apparent in the works of the second epoch of Guarneri. The following
remarks on this point are the result of the most careful consideration
of the subject, and may serve to assist the reader in forming an
opinion. Had Giuseppe Guarneri
received his early instructions from Stradivari, should we not expect
his instruments to bear the character of the master in some slight
degree? The most diligent student will, however, fail to discover
an early work of Guarneri bearing any likeness whatever to the work
of Stradivari. Among the instruments of the second epoch may be
found a few that show some gleam of the desired similarity in respect
of high finish; but it would be to the earliest efforts of Guarneri
that we should turn in our endeavour to discover the source of his
first instructions. The faint gleam of similarity, then, attaching
to the instruments of the second epoch, be it understood, is in
no way sufficient to demonstrate that Guarneri was a pupil of Stradivari.
Upon turning to other makers, what will be the result if we judge
them by the criterion above mentioned? Bergonzi, Guadagnini, Gagliano,
and others, whose names it is unnecessary to mention, leave upon
their earliest efforts the indelible stamp of the master who first
instructed them. To suppose that Guarneri del Ges� formed the single
exception to the likeness between the work of master and pupil,
is scarcely sufficient to satisfy the inquiry. There are three essential
points of difference between Guarneri and Stradivari. The first
is the outline of the work, which, as the mere tyro must at once
observe, is totally different in their respective instruments. The
second is the sound-hole, in which, again, the two do not approach
one another; that of Guarneri is long, and a modified form of that
of Gasparo da Sal�. The third is the scroll, in which Guarneri is
as distinct from Stradivari as it is possible to be. It may be asked,
then, if not from Stradivari, from whom did Guarneri receive instruction? To
disagree with what is popularly accepted, and yet to withhold one's
own counter-theory, may perhaps tend to weaken one's case. There
can be but one method to be pursued if, in the absence of any historical
data, we set about the investigation of the question, viz., that
of analogy. Starting upon this ground, the first step to be taken
is to endeavour to discover the maker whose work and style bear
some degree of similarity to those of Giuseppe del Ges�. If we carefully
review the works of the Cremonese makers, it will be found that
Giuseppe Guarneri, son of Andrea, and a relative of Guarneri del
Ges�, is the only maker in whose productions we can find the strong
similarity needed. Analogy, therefore, would point to him as the
instructor of his kinsman. Giuseppe Guarneri, son of Andrea, was
del Ges�'s senior by many years, and it is far more reasonable to
conclude that it was in his workshop that del Ges� was first instructed,
than that he was the pupil of a maker whose work he never copied,
and whose style has nothing in common with his own. Enough has been
said on this question to enable the reader to judge for himself,
and this may the more readily be conceded when it is also admitted
that, after all, it is of little importance to determine where the
early training of this kingly maker was passed, as he so soon displayed
that rare originality which separated him from his brethren for
ever.
We will now inquire
into the character of Guarneri del Ges�'s model. In forming this,
he seems to have turned to Gasparo da Sal� as the maker whose lead
he wished to follow; and if each point be critically considered,
an impression is left that, after well weighing the merits and demerits
of Gasparo's model, he resolved to commence where Gasparo ceased,
and carry out the plan left incomplete by the great Brescian maker.
To commence with that all-important element the sound-hole, it will
be seen that Guarneri del Ges� retained its pointed form. Next comes
the outline of the body, where, again, there is much affinity to
the type of Gasparo da Sal�, particularly in the middle bouts. Lastly,
the quality of wood selected for the bellies is in both makers similar.
In continuing the path trodden by Gasparo, Guarneri proved himself
an artist possessed of no little discernment. His chief desire was
evidently to make instruments capable of producing a quality of
tone hitherto unknown, and that he succeeded is universally acknowledged.
Workmanship, as evidenced by the instruments of his first and last
epoch, was with him a purely secondary consideration. In the second
epoch, his work shows him to have been not unmindful of it. That
he brought much judgment to bear upon his work, the vast number
of instruments that he has left and the great variety of their construction
are sufficient to prove. The extent of his researches is surprising,
and there is no ground for the assertion frequently made that he
worked without plan or reason. The idea that such a maker as Guarneri
groped in the dark savours of the ridiculous; moreover, there is
direct evidence, on the contrary, of his marvellous fertility of
design. At one period his instruments are extremely flat, without
any perceptible rise; at another, the form is raised in a marked
manner and the purfling sunk into a groove; a parallel of this type
of instrument is to be found in the works of Pietro Guarneri and
Montagnana. At one time his sound-holes were cut nearly perpendicularly
(a freak which, by the way, has some show of reason, for though
it sacrifices beauty, it also prevents the breaking up of the fibres),
at another shortened and slanting, and some, again, are occasionally
seen immoderately long. These hastily-marshalled instances are quite
sufficient to show the extent of his experiments, and the many resources
which he adopted in order to produce exceptional qualities of tone. In order that the
reader may better understand the subject, before going farther into
the peculiar features belonging to the instruments of Guarneri,
we will classify his work. M. F�tis, doubtless under the guidance
of M. Vuillaume, has divided the career of Guarneri into three periods—an
excellent arrangement, and one that cannot be improved upon. It
only remains to point out certain peculiarities omitted in the description
of these three stages which M. F�tis gives us. In the first epoch
we find instruments of various patterns, the character of the sound-holes
being very changeable. At one time there is a strange mixture of
grace and boldness; at another the whole is singularly deformed,
and the purfling roughly executed, as though the maker had no time
to finish his work properly. It seems as if he had hastily finished
off a set of Violins that he had already tested, eager to lay the
stocks for another fresh venture. The second epoch has given us
some of the finest specimens of the art of Violin-making. In these
culminate the most exquisite finish, a thoroughly artistic and original
form, and the most handsome material. In some cases the lustre of
the wood of the backs, set in its casing of deep amber, that unrivalled
varnish, may be likened to the effect produced by the setting summer
sun on cloud and wave. The reader may pardon a somewhat novel application
of the loveliest description of the glow of evening to be found
in the compass of the English language, which paints the heavens'
colours as— "Melted to one
vast iris of the west, Where the day joins
the past eternity. ... All its hues, And now they change; a paler
shadow strews The effect of this
beautiful coruscation upon the backs of Violins is obtained by cutting
the wood upon the cross, or, as the French term it,sur maille.
It is seen, though rarely, on backs divided, when the wood is particularly
handsome in curl. The varnish on such instruments is of a rich golden
hue, highly transparent; it is lightly laid on. The size of these
works varies; they are sometimes a trifle smaller than the other
specimens of Guarneri. In the last epoch we find Violins of an altogether
bolder conception, dating from about 1740 and a little later. They
are massively constructed, and have in them material of the finest
acoustic properties. The sound-hole loses the pointed form so much
associated with Guarneri: the purfling is embedded, the edges heavy,
the corners somewhat grotesque, the scroll has a mixture of vigour,
comicality, and majesty, which may force a smile and then a frown
from the connoisseur. The comparison may seem a little forced, but
the head of a thoroughbred English mastiff, if carved, might give
some idea of the appearance sought to be described. Mr. Reade says
of these instruments with much truth, "Such is the force of
genius, that I believe in our secret hearts we love these impudent
Fiddles best, they are so full of chic." Among
the Violins of this period may be mentioned Paganini's, and M. Alard's,
both rare specimens. These splendid chefs-d'oeuvre are
strangely mixed with those commonly known as the "prison
Fiddles"—a sorry title. The name arose from the story
current in Italy that Guarneri made some Fiddles whilst undergoing
imprisonment, and that the gaoler's daughter procured him the necessary
materials, which were of the coarsest kind. M. F�tis refers to the
story, and mentions that Benedetto Bergonzi, who died in 1840, used
to relate it. Allusion is also made to it by Vincenzo Lancetti,
to whom it was doubtless communicated by Count Cozio di Salabue.
These references lead to the belief that the tradition has some
foundation in fact, though not to the extent that he ended his days in
durance vile. Lancetti refers to the offence as an encounter
with some person in which his antagonist lost his life. A deplorable
circumstance of this kind may have occurred without the accused
having been criminally at fault, though he may have suffered the
penalty of being so. His reported love of wine and pleasure, his
idleness and irregularity, in all probability were statements added
by successive narrators of the prison story. A recent search made
by Canon Bazzi in the obituary registers of the cathedral at Cremona,
discovers the fact that one Giacomo Guarneri died in prison on October
8, 1715. Bearing in mind how frequently we find fact and fiction
jumbled together in historical pursuits, the prison story in connection
with the name of Giuseppe Guarneri may have no other foundation
than a story, long current, that a person named Guarneri was imprisoned,
and wholly regardless of identity. I have referred to
the three periods of this remarkable man's life in relation to his
art, and it remains to point out some other features in his work
and material. His selection of wood, when he had the opportunity
of exercising his own judgment, was all that could be desired, and
the belly wood in particular was of the choicest description. He
seems to have obtained a piece of pine, of considerable size, possessing
extraordinary acoustic properties, from which he made nearly the
whole of his bellies. The bellies made from this wood have a singular
stain, running parallel with the finger-board on either side, and
unmistakable, though frequently seen but faintly. If we may judge
from the constant use he made of this material, it would seem that
he regarded it as a mine of wealth. The care he bestowed, when working
it, that none should be lost, affords clear evidence of the value
that he set upon this precious piece of wood. I have met with three
Violins by Carlo Bergonzi, having bellies evidently cut from the
same piece of pine, and these instruments passed as the work of
Guarneri for a long period. The sycamore that he used was varied
both in appearance and quality; it is chiefly of a broad description
of grain, the whole-backs being impressively marked like a tiger's
skin. There are a few instances where, in his jointed-backs, the
markings of the wood are turned upwards. Upon examining the
works of Guarneri with respect to their graduation, it is found
that he varied very much as to the quantity of wood left in the
several instruments. Notwithstanding these differences, however,
it will be found, upon closer comparison of the thickness, that
there is every reason to be sure that he had a guiding principle
in their management. They vary with the quality of the wood; and
hard material was treated as needing a slighter solidity than wood
of a softer nature. His workmanship in
numerous instances is, without doubt, careless; but, even in the
instruments where this negligence is most observed, there is an
appearance which at once excites the admiration of the beholder,
and forces from the most exacting the admission that, after every
deduction on account of want of finish, there remains a style defying
all imitation. Who can fail to recognise the quaint head, into which
he seems to have thrown such singular character by the mere turn
of his chisel, and which, when imitated, always partakes of the
ludicrous, and betrays the unhappy copyist who is unable to compass
that necessary turn! In matters of the highest art it is always
so; the possessor of genius is constantly showing some last resort,
as it were, impregnable to imitation. The sound-hole, also,
of Guarneri always preserves its distinctive character, and a grotesque
humour which at once pleases the eye, though it is found to vary
considerably with the three periods of his life. Again, the button—that
portion of the back against which the heel of the neck rests, which
forms a prominent mark in all Violins, and an evidence of style,
has a remarkably pronounced development in the Violins of Guarneri,
and, in fact, may be said to give a vitality to the whole work.
There are many instances where excellent and original specimens
of workmanship have been, speaking artistically, ruined for want
of skill in handling that simple factor of the Violin. Having endeavoured
to point out the chief features in the work and style of this remarkable
maker, I have only to add that his imitators would far exceed in
number all the Violin-makers that the city of Cremona ever sheltered.
There has ever been a diversity of purpose with these Guarneri imitators,
distinct from those of Stradivari and others. They may be divided
into three orders, viz., the bon� fide copyist,
the subtle copyist, and the wholesale copyist. The first sets about
making his instrument resemble the original as closely as possible,
and when completed, sends it forth as a copy, and nothing else.
Among these legitimate imitators were Lupot, Gand, Vuillaume, and
others. The subtle copyist takes advantage of the disturbed styles
belonging to Guarneri, coupled with his misfortunes, manufactures
and translates at will. He "spots" a back on an old fiddle,
in which he sees Guarneri in embryo; he secures it. In his possession
is a belly which, with a little skilful manoeuvring of sound-holes
and corners, may be accommodated to the back. The sides need well
matching in point of colour; workmanship is purely secondary. The
scroll he sets himself to carve, giving it a hideous,
burglar-like appearance. The inevitable label is inserted, and the
Violin leaves the translator's hand a "Prison Joseph."
Now comes the difficulty. How is this "Joseph," unaccustomed
to elbow his legitimate namesakes in the world of Fiddles, to maintain
the character he has assumed? The subtle copyist puzzles his brain
without arriving at anything very satisfactory. He resolves to slip
it into a sale of household effects. It is described in the catalogue,
in glowing terms, as having been in the possession of Geminiani
(he not being alive to dispute the assertion). Previous to the sale
the instrument is viewed. The knowing ones pass it by with contempt.
The half-informed turn it over and over, puzzled, and
replace it in its case disconsolate. The thoroughly ignorant looks
inside; "Joseph Guarnerius Cremonensis faciebat 1724,"
in old type, stares him in the face; he puts the bow on the strings
and demands the maker's name—his thoughts are echoed back
in gentle sounds: "Joseph Guarnerius." He returns it to
its case, shuts the lid, and exultingly sallies forth, congratulating
himself again upon his good fortune in having at last the opportunity
of securing the real thing at the price of "a mere song."
The time of sale arrives. The beauties of the instrument are dwelt
upon by the auctioneer; he begs to be permitted to say two hundred
guineas to commence with. Silence around. "Well, gentlemen,
shall I say one hundred and fifty guineas?" Dogged silence.
"Come, come, gentlemen, this is mere trifling. A 'Joseph Guarnerius'
for one hundred and fifty guineas! Shall I say one hundred guineas?"
The customary witty frequenter of sale-rooms, unable to restrain
himself longer, cries out, "I'll give yer a pound!" The
auctioneer sees the whole thing; it is a copy that he is selling,
and not the original. The pound bid is capped by another from our
friend, who fondly fancies himself behind the scenes. The subtle
copyist, seeing his eagerness, bids on his bid, and the "Joseph
Guarnerius del Ges�" falls with the hammer to the anxious buyer
for ten pounds. He demands possession of it at once, in case another
may be substituted, and retires, perfectly satisfied with his day's
work. The wholesale copyists are those who manufacture Violins in
Bavaria and France in large factories, where the Violins undergo
all kinds of processes to make them modern antiques. The wood is
put into ovens and baked until it assumes the required brownness,
or steeped in strong acids until it becomes more like a piece of
charred wood than anything else; the sharp edges are removed by
the file; the wear of years is effected in a few moments by rubbing
down those parts subject to friction; it is ticketed and dated,
regardless alike of orthography and chronology, the date being generally
before or after the original's existence. These imitations are so
barefaced as to render them comparatively harmless. GUIDANTI, Giovanni,
Bologna, about 1740. High model; sound-hole long; purfling badly
let in; the outer form inelegant, particularly the middle bouts.
At the Exhibition at Milan, 1881, a Viola d'Amore was exhibited,
signed "Joannes Guidantus, fecit Bononi�, anno 1715,"
ornamented with a beautiful head artistically carved, representing
a blindfolded Cupid. GUILLAMI, Spanish
family of Violin-makers, about 1680-1780. HARTON, Michael,
Padua, 1600. Lute-maker. KERLINO, Joan, 1449.
Maker of Viols. Numerous instruments of the Violin shape have been
attributed to this maker, particularly those of quaint appearance,
but it is doubtful whether he made any instruments but those of
the Viol type. LAGETTO, Luigi,
Paris, about 1753. LANDOLFI, Carlo
Ferdinando, Milan, 1750. Though he belonged to the latest of the Italian makers,
his merits were of no ordinary kind. His instruments vary very much,
and hence, probably, a confusion has arisen as to there being two
makers of this name, which is not the case. Those instruments which
have the bright red varnish are certainly the best. The varnish
is very transparent, and, the wood being strikingly handsome, the
effect is most pleasing. The pattern is not a copy of Guarneri,
as often stated, but thoroughly original. His sound-hole cannot
be considered an effective one, and is not in keeping with the work.
The outer edge is generally grooved. The scroll is weak. His Violoncellos
are mostly of small size. Some of this maker's instruments are very
unfinished, many not being purfled, and having only a single coat
of varnish. LANZA, Antonio
Maria, 1674. Copied the Brescian makers. LAVAZZA, Santino,
Milan, about 1700. Santino Lavazza
fece in Milano in Contrada larga 17— LAVAZZA, Antonio,
Milan. Lavazza Antonio
Maria fece in Milano in Contrada larga 17— LINAROLLI, Venturo,
Venice, 1520. A maker of Viols. LOLY, Jacopo, Naples,
17th century. Of the Grancino type. Scroll diminutive. Yellow varnish.
Material very hard. Flat model. He made a few large tenors. MAGGINI, Giovanni
Paolo, Brescia, 1590. This famous maker followed Gasparo da Sal�,
and was his pupil. It is surmised that he may have died of the plague
in or about the year 1632. No Italian maker is more frequently mistaken
than Maggini. Any instrument having ornamentations on the back in
the shape of purfled scroll-work is at once said to be by Paolo
Maggini. Barak Norman, the old English maker, thus comes in for
a large share of Maggini's patronage, as also a vast number of early
German makers, who adopted similar devices; to the real connoisseur,
however, there is no difficulty in distinguishing the work. A more
pardonable error is the confusion of Gasparo da Sal� and Maggini,
which is of frequent occurrence. The Double Basses of these two
makers have much in common to the eye of the not deeply versed examiner.
Maggini, however, was not so successful as his compeer in the selection
of the form of his instruments. In them we miss
the harmony of outline belonging to those of Gasparo, particularly
as relates to his Double Basses. Gasparo's Violins are less harmonious
in design, and evince his unsettled views as to the form they should
take; a perfectly natural circumstance when the infantile state
of the Violin in his day is considered. The outline of Maggini is
broad, but lacks the classic symmetry of the rare old Brescian maker.
The form is flat, and the means which he adopted in order to obtain
a full and telling tone were very complete. The sides are frequently
shallow, and in accordance with the outline. With others who followed
him, he evidently recognised the necessity of reducing the height
of the sides in proportion to the dimensions of the instrument.
The sound-hole is long and pointed, and admirably set in the instrument.
The scroll is primitive, but boldly cut, and clearly marks an onward
step from the somewhat crude production of Gasparo, the back of
which is not grooved, or but slightly. Maggini's varnish is of brown
or yellow colour, and of good quality. The instruments covered with
the brown varnish are often without any device on their backs, and
seldom have two rows of purfling. De B�riot, the famous Belgian
Violinist, used one of Maggini's Violins, and, in consequence, their
value was much increased. MALER, Laux, Bologna,
about 1450. Maker of Lutes. Maler appears to have been regarded
by Lutinists as the Stradivari of Lutes. Thomas Mace informs us
in his "Musick's Monument," 1676, they were sold for as
much as one hundred pounds each, though often "pittiful, old,
batter'd, crack'd things." He tells us he has "often seen
Lutes of three or four pounds price far more illustrious and taking
to a common eye." History repeats itself at every turn. The
uneducated eye of today is equally apt to regard a Mirecourt or
Bavarian copy with as much favour as a genuine Cremona. Mace proceeds
to instruct the "common eye." "First, know that an
old Lute is better than a new one." Thus also with Viols: "We
chiefly value old instruments before new; for by experience they
are found to be far the best." "The pores of the wood
have a more and free liberty to move, stir, or secretly vibrate,
by which means the air—which is the life of all things, both
animate and inanimate—has a more free and easie recourse to
pass and repass." This explanation accounts, in part at least,
for the superiority of old over new instruments, and in language
delightfully quaint and simple. MANTEGAZZA, Pietro
Giovanni, Milan. Vincenzo Lancetti states that "about 1800
the Brothers Mantegazza were restorers of instruments, and were
often entrusted by French and Italian artistes to lengthen the necks
of their Violins after the Paris fashion, an example which was followed
by amateurs and professors all over North Italy." This extract
shows that the short necks were dispensed with in Paris towards
the close of the last century, and doubtless Viotti was the chief
instigator with regard to the change. The family of Mantegazza,
as Violin-makers, date back to about the middle of the eighteenth
century. They appear to have made many Tenors. The workmanship is
good, and also the modelling of the later-dated instruments. The
older ones are rather high, but the varnish is brilliant. The wood
is somewhat hard. Count Cozio was a patron of the Brothers Mantegazza,
and he appears to have increased his knowledge of Italian Violins
from information acquired from them. MARATTI, Verona,
about 1700. MARCHETTI, Enrico,
Turin, contemporary. MARIANI, Antonio,
Pesaro, from about 1580 to 1619. Long middle bouts and corners;
style and work very primitive, mostly double purfled. MEIBERI, Francesco,
Leghorn, 1750. MESSEGUER, Spanish,
about 1646. MEZADRI, Alessandro,
Ferrara, 1690-1722. The pattern is inelegant, and the sound-holes
too close. MEZADRI, Francesco,
Milan, about 1712. MIALFI, Joannes,
1769. The label is in Spanish. Ordinary
character of work.
MONTAGNANA, Domenico,
Cremona and Venice, 1700-1740. Pupil of Antonio Stradivari.
After leaving the workshop of his famous master, he followed his
art in Cremona. He afterwards removed to Venice, where Violin manufacture
was in the most flourishing condition, and adopted the name of "Cremona"
as the sign of his house. In days when houses were unnumbered, tradesmen
were found by their sign, and they were often puzzled to select
one both distinctive and effective. The Violin-makers of Italy,
having exhausted the calendar of its Saints emblematic of Harmony,
left it to the Venetian to honour the name of himself and the city
which was the seat of the greatest Violin manufacture the world
had witnessed. In Venice he soon attained great popularity, and
made the splendid specimens of his art with which we are familiar.
The instructions which he had received at Cremona enabled him to
surpass all in Venice. He gained great knowledge of the qualities
of material, and of the thicknesses to be observed; and, moreover,
he carried with him the superior form of the Cremonese school, and
the glorious varnish. Mr. Reade names him "the mighty Venetian,"
an appellation not a whit too high-sounding, though it may appear
so to those not acquainted with his finest works. The truth is,
that Montagnana is less known than any of the great makers. For
years his works have been roaming about, bearing the magic labels
of "Guarnerius filius Andre�," "Carlo Bergonzi,"
and sometimes of "Pietro Guarneri," although there is
barely a particle of resemblance between the works of our author
and the makers named, whose labels have been used as floats. Montagnana was in
every way original, but the fraud that has foisted his works upon
makers who were better known has prevented his name from being associated
with many of his choicest instruments, and deprived him of the place
which he would long since have held in the estimation of the true
connoisseur. This injustice, however, is fast passing away; as ever,
genius comes forth triumphant. The time is near
when the "mighty Venetian" and Carlo Bergonzi will occupy
positions little less considerable than that of the two great masters.
Already the merits of these makers are daily more appreciated, and
when the scarcity of their genuine works is considered, it becomes
a matter of certainty that their rank must be raised to the point
indicated. It is much to be
regretted that both Montagnana and Bergonzi did not leave more numerous
specimens behind them. Would that each had been as prolific as their
common master! We should then have inherited a store from which
our coming Violinists and Violoncellists could have possessed themselves
of splendid instruments, when those of Guarneri and Stradivari were
placed far beyond reach. In these times, when
the love of music is rapidly developing itself among all classes,
the question of supply must attract notice. The prime question with
respect to Violins of the highest character is not now as to price,
but as to the supply of limited and daily decreasing material; and
the doubtful point is, not whether purchasers are to be found who
may not be unwilling to pay the increased cost consequent upon scarcity,
but whether the instruments required will be available in sufficient
numbers to satisfy the demands of those quite prepared to gratify
their wishes for the possession of an instrument of the first rank.
A single glance is sufficient to remind us that the list of makers
of the highest class, and particularly of original artists, is scanty
indeed. There are a few copyists, it is true, notably Lupot and
Panormo, whose instruments must take a considerable position, but
on the whole the demand will far exceed the supply. The difficulty
here noticed is intensified from the fact of the Violin being sought
after as it is, unlike any other musical instrument, for the cabinets
of the collector as well as for actual use—a state of things
perfectly natural when its artistic beauties are considered. Violinists
possibly consider they smart under a sense of wrong at the hands
of collectors who thus indulge their taste; but, on the other hand,
we have reason to be grateful to the lovers of art for having stayed
the hand of Time in demolishing these treasures. To return to the
subject of this present notice: it is evident that when Montagnana
left the workshop of Stradivari, he gave full scope to his creative
powers. He at once began to construct upon principles of his own,
and thus followed the example of his fellow-worker, Carlo Bergonzi.
If comparison be made between the work of Stradivari and that of
Domenico Montagnana, with regard to detail, the two makers will
not be found to have much in common. It is when Montagnana's instrument
is viewed as a whole that the teaching of Stradivari is evidenced.
A similar assertion may, in a lesser degree, be made in the case
of Carlo Bergonzi. To dissect the several points of difference is
a simple matter. If we begin with the outline, that of Montagnana
has not the smoothness and grace of the Stradivarian type; the upper
and lower curves are flattened, while those of the centre are extended.
The sound-hole partakes more of the character of Guarneri; the scroll
is larger, and the turns bolder than in the Stradivari form. These,
then, may be considered to be the chief points wherein, if viewed
as separate items, Montagnana seems to have varied from his master:
and hence we may obtain some idea of the amount of originality belonging
to this maker—an amount, indeed, not inferior to that of any
Cremonese artist that can be cited. The increasing popularity of
Montagnana's instruments is sufficient proof that his design was
fraught with much that is valuable. In departing from the form of
Antonio Stradivari, Carlo Bergonzi and Montagnana doubtless
intended to bring out in a stronger degree certain particular qualities
of tone: at the same time we may be sure that they had no idea of
attempting to improve upon Stradivari in his own field of work,
for they must have well known the Herculean character of such a
task. On the other hand, had these remarkable makers been mere copyists,
they would certainly have handed down to us more instruments moulded
in exact accord with the style of their great teacher; while, at
the same time, we should have lost many variations, which are at
present not only an evidence of their fertility of resource, but
also in themselves most pleasing objects. If, in the sister art,
Tintoretto had made it his sole business to copy Titian, the world
would have been rich in copies of Titian, but poor in Tintorettos. The varnish of Montagnana
has long excited the admiration of connoisseurs throughout Europe.
The extreme richness and velvet-like softness which are its characteristics
constitute it a fitting countersign of the workmanship of this great
maker, an artist of the first magnitude. He made Violins, Tenors,
and Violoncellos. His Violins are of two sizes. MONTALDI, Gregorio,
Cremona, 1730. Copied Stradivari. MORELLA, ——,
Mantua, about 1550. M. F�tis, in his "Biographie Universelle
des Musiciens," states that he was famous for his Viols and
Lutes. S. Ang. Maffei, in his "Annali di Mantova" (fol.
147), highly praises the instruments made by Morella. NADOTTI, Giuseppe,
Piacenza. A Violin by this maker was in 1881 exhibited at the Milan
Exhibition, dated 1767. NELLA, Raffaele,
Brescia, copied Maggini. ORTEGA, ——,
Madrid, about 1840. Maker and restorer of instruments. PANDOLFI, Antonio,
Venice. A Violin of this make, dated 1719, was among the instruments
exhibited at the Milan Exhibition in 1881. PANORMO, Vincenzo,
Palermo, born about 1740, died 1813. This maker was one of the most
successful followers of Antonio Stradivari. Panormo and Lupot share
the palm as copyists of the great Cremonese master. Neither appears
to have attempted to create a model of his own; their sole aim was
to imitate to the utmost the various patterns of Stradivari, Guarneri,
and Amati, but they principally confined themselves to Stradivari. Vincenzo Panormo
left Italy in early life, and settled for a short time in Paris,
from which city a few of his instruments are dated. From Paris he
removed to London, where he remained many years. He also visited
Ireland, where he made, it is said, several beautiful instruments
from an old maple billiard-table, with which he was fortunate enough
to meet. He was of a restless temperament, which showed itself in
continual self-imposed changes. He would not, or could not, permit
his reputation to grow steadily, by residing long in one place,
but as soon as fame was within his grasp, he sacrificed the work
of years by removing to an entirely new field of labour. Panormo furnishes
us with another example of the certain appreciation, sooner or later,
of exceptional talents. No matter how trifling the circumstances
under which gifted men have laboured, some time or other their genius
is discovered, and acknowledged with its due award, if not of fortune,
at least of fame. The peculiar circumstances under which Panormo
lived would have been sufficient in the case of most men to dwarf
all efforts. Unable to obtain readily that patronage to which his
abilities justly entitled him, he removed from city to city, hoping
to discover a resting-place, in which favour might attend his art.
No doubt this was a mistaken course, and one which robbed his work
of the attention which a mind undisturbed by the care of existence
can bestow; nevertheless his natural gifts had a vitality that could
not entirely be suppressed. He worked and toiled for his art and
for bare sustenance alternately. His life, like that of many others
in the paths of literature and science, was a continued battle with
adversity. Such persons are forced to satisfy daily wants by slaving
at work which brings them but little credit in after time, and becomes
a standard by which they are too often erroneously judged. Vincenzo Panormo
was the slave of many, manufacturing Double Basses and other instruments
from the material selected and purchased by his temporary employer,
ofttimes compelled to carry out some crotchet of the patron much
against his own wishes. The wood thus forced upon him was often
of the worst description; and, in addition, he was frequently obliged
to complete his work within a given time. Instruments manufactured
under such conditions can scarcely, it may be supposed, add to their
maker's reputation. We cannot but regret that he should have been
obliged to waste himself on such poor materials. Fortunately, however,
in some cases he found time to exercise his skilful powers to their
full extent, and has thus bequeathed to us some of the finest specimens
of the copyist's art. His workmanship is
of a lighter description than that of Lupot, and is therefore more
graceful. The sound-hole is admirably cut, and the scroll also well
carved. PANSANI, Antonio,
Rome, 1735. PASTA, Antonio,
Brescia, 1700-1730. Good work. Model a little high; varnish of soft quality. PASTA, Domenico,
Brescia, about 1700. PAZZINI, Gaetano,
Florence, about 1630, pupil of Maggini. PICINO, Padua, 1712.
High model; dark varnish. PLATNER, Michel,
Rome, about 1750. The instruments of this maker resemble those of
Tecchler, both in workmanship and varnish. Michael Platner fecit Rom� anno 17— POLLUSCA, Antonio, Rome, about 1751. POSTIGLIONE, Vincenzo, Naples, contemporary. PRESSENDA, Giovanni
Francesco, Turin. Born in the year 1777. The Violins bearing the
label of Pressenda are excellently made, and in many instances the
varnish is superior to that met with on any Violins dated from Italy
in the present century. Pressenda appears to have interested himself
to some extent in the matter of varnish. In a little book published
in Italy13 there is the following passage: "A
pale reflection of the old art (Violin-making) is found in Piedmont,
with Guadagnini." The writer continues with the following reference
to Pressenda of Turin, who, he remarks, was in his youth at Cremona,
"where he collected the traditions of the school as regards
modelling and the preparation of the varnish, which is the chief
merit of his Violins." It is almost needless to remark that
traditional information is frequently unsatisfactory, but particularly
so in connection with Cremonese Violin-making and varnishing, near
the middle of the last century. In short, the great makers left
no other record of the steps they took both in manufacture and in
the preparation of their varnish than can be discovered in their
works. The instruments of Pressenda present a singular contrast
with others of Italian make belonging to this century, most of which
evidence what may be termed the throes of a dying manufacture. With
Pressenda we appear to have a new departure, in which there is some
show of attention having been paid to the work accomplished in the
best workshops of Paris. The then condition of Violin-making in
Italy made it necessary for any Italian maker—no matter how
great his ability—to seek information elsewhere, if desirous
of excelling in his art. Pressenda appears to have sought to emulate
and even surpass many Parisian makers by associating his name for
the most part with good and unsophisticated work. The results of
his labours reflect no little credit on his skill and judgment.
Pressenda may be styled a born maker of Violins. From an account
published by Signor Rinaldi, of Turin, in 1873, we learn that Pressenda
was the son of poor parents, who lived in Lequio-Berria, a hamlet
in the vicinity of Alba, in Piedmont. His father Raffaele was a
strolling fiddler, and gained his precarious livelihood by playing
at village fairs and other rejoicings. On these occasions he was
accompanied by his son Giovanni, who followed the occupation of
his father, playing the Violin with some degree of skill. It was
at this period that he appears to have manifested a desire to know
something of Violin manufacture, and frequently asked for information
from his parent, who, however, was rarely able to satisfy his curiosity.
Learning that Cremona was in some way associated with good Violins,
he resolved to fiddle his way to that city. There he found Storioni,
from whom he obtained some rudimentary knowledge of the manufacture
he was so much interested in. Later he removed to Piedmont, and
established himself in Alba in 1814, as a maker of Violins. The
patronage he gained was, however, insufficient to maintain him,
and he combined the business of cabinet-making with his favourite
pursuit. After removing to Carmagnola, he went in the year 1820
to Turin, where his abilities were recognised and rewarded. He was
encouraged in his manufacture by Giovanni Battista Polledro, the
famous Violinist, who, in 1824, became Musical Director of the Royal
Orchestra at Turin. Pressenda died in the year 1854 at Turin. His
Violins are chiefly of the model of Stradivari. The sound-holes
are well cut. The thicknesses of his best instruments are well arranged,
and the wood appears to have been selected with good judgment. The
scrolls, whilst having much character, are somewhat roughly cut.
The Violins belonging to his early period are chiefly of the Amatese
character. RACCERIS,——, Mantua, about 1670. RINALDI, Gioffredo,
Turin. (Benedetti, Gioffredo.) Chiefly known as a dealer in Violins.
He exhibited a few Violins by Giovanni F. Pressenda at the Vienna
Exhibition, 1873, and published a short notice of that maker, which
he inscribed to the Archduke Rannieri. RIVOLTA, Giacomo,
Milan, about 1822. Excellent work; scroll well cut. One of the best
Italian makers of the nineteenth century. ROCCA, Joseph Antonio,
Piedmont, 1837-1863. Chiefly followed the pattern of Stradivarius.
Neat workmanship, varnish rather thin, well-cut scroll. He worked
for some time with Pressenda. RODIANI, Giovita,
sometimes called Budiani; Brescia, about 1580-1620. His instruments
resemble those of Maggini. Dragonetti is said to have had a Double
Bass of this make. ROTA, Giovanni, Cremona.
Yellow varnish, plain wood, heavy work, rough purfling. Joannes Rota fecit
Cremonese Anno 1808. ROVETTA, Bergamo,
1840-70. ROGERI, Giovanni
Battista, Cremona and Brescia. The word Bon after his name refers to his having been
a citizen of Bologna. Vincenzo Lancetti speaks of its being certain
that he called himself Bononiensis. The instruments
of this maker are of a different pattern from those of Francesco
Ruggeri. They are higher modelled, the sound-holes less elegant,
and the scroll heavier. They possess, however, high merits, and
command prices nearly equivalent to those of the instruments of
Francesco. The labels of this maker are sometimes met with printed
in red ink. The instruments he made of large Amati pattern are highly
valued. He appears to have worked from about the close of the seventeenth
century. Count Cozio di Salabue and Lancetti speak of G. B. Rogeri
having worked down to 1723, and possibly later, and state that he
lived for many years in Brescia. There are some instruments bearing
original Amati labels of this make, made, doubtless, when he was
in the shop of Amati. ROGERI, Pietro Giacomo,
Brescia, describes himself on his label as a pupil of Niccol� Amati.
Lancetti refers to a Violoncello by Pietro Rogeri as having belonged
to Count Cozio, and remarks that he was a "nearly unknown member
of the Rogeri family." The date of the instrument is given
as 1714. He cannot now be looked upon as almost unknown, since Signor
Piatti played for many years upon a famous Violoncello of his make.
The pattern is a little narrower than that of G. B. Rogeri. Varnish
of beautiful quality; sound-hole resembles that of Francesco Ruggeri. RUGGERI, Francesco,
Cremona, 1668-1720. Surnamed "Il Per." The family of Ruggeri
long occupied a foremost place in the city of Cremona as makers
of Violins, Tenors, and Violoncellos. Their position must have been
but little inferior to that of the Amati family. Francesco, in his
earliest works, gives evidence of exceptional artistic feeling,
and the sequel of his career, as evidenced by his productions, is
a genuine development of the first impulses of his genius. His work
belongs to the school of Amati, but though the list of instruments
which he has bequeathed to us be a long one, there is no sign of
his ever having been a mere copyist. He evidently thought for himself.
His sound-hole is a beautiful piece of workmanship, and may be said
to come between that of Niccol� Amati and Stradivari, being of the
most delicate execution. The outline of his work is very graceful,
and the arching admirable. The scroll has quite an equal merit with
the body. He was very successful in selecting his material, much
of which is handsome. His varnish, thoroughly Cremonese in character,
and of a most beautiful hue, may be equalled, but never surpassed.
This maker also knew how to use his varnish. There is no instance
in which it has been laid on in clumsy patches; the surface is always
true and even, and, in consequence, the brilliancy of its appearance
is perfect. Lancetti remarks, "Francesco Ruggeri was a pupil
of Niccol� Amati, and perhaps a more exact imitator of his instruments
than G. B. Rogeri, and made several instruments, beautifully finished,
and which are not easily distinguished from those of his master."
Count Cozio possessed a fine Violin by Francesco, dated 1684, and
the Marquis Castiglioni also possessed one made in the same year.
Francesco Ruggeri died at the house No. 7, Contrada Coltellai, Cremona. RUGGERI, Giacinto
detto Il Per, Cremona. Son of Francesco Ruggeri. A Violoncello bearing this
label is in the possession of Mr. G. Foster Cooke: RUGGERI, Vincenzo,
Cremona, also uses the name "Il Per." Worked from about
1700 to 1730. He appears to have made many Violoncellos. RUGGERI, Giambattista,
Cremona. About 1693. Also called himself Il Per. Lancetti suggests
that this maker was a relative of Francesco. He made several Violoncellos
of large size and deep sides, the wood of which is often plain.
The varnish is of good quality and dark brown colour. He also made
Violins and Tenors, the latter being excellent instruments. SACCHINI, Sebastiano. Sebastino Sacchni
da Pesaro l'anno 1686. SAL�, Gasparo da.
His real name was Gasparo dei Bertolotti. The researches of Cavalliere
Livi, keeper of the Brescian Archives, have brought to light much
valuable information as to this famous maker. He was born in the
town of Sal� (Province of Brescia) in or about the year 1542, died
there on the 14th of April, 1609, and was buried in the church of
San Joseffo. A son (Francesco) appears to have worked with him and
to have died in 1614. Several Viols of Gasparo's workmanship, of
different sizes, are still extant. The Violins are very rare. A
few large Violas exist, the tone of which is magnificent. His genuine
labels bear no date. Gio Paolo Maggini was apprenticed to him, and
is believed to have purchased the business, after Gasparo's death,
from his son Francesco. To Gasparo da Sal�
belongs the credit of having laid the foundation of the Italian
style of Violin-making. In his works may be traced the gradual development
of the system upon which his followers built their reputation, viz.,
a well-defined model, excellent materials, and choice varnish. It
is to be regretted that his immediate followers, with the exception
of Paolo Maggini, departed from the path so successfully trodden
by this great pioneer. But for this deviation, the works of the
early Amati and a few others would have occupied a higher position
than that which they now command. They were men possessing great
abilities, and might easily have carried out the designs of the
great Brescian maker. They appear, however, to have arrived at a
different conclusion, as regards the form of their instrument, from
that shaped by Gasparo da Sal�. Their works show an evident preference
for the high model, and thus undid much that Gasparo had accomplished.
It is clear that Gasparo only arrived at his conclusions after painstaking
labour, for he commenced with the high form, and gradually, as experience
taught, lowered it. It is, further, remarkable that the latter members
of the Amati family pursued the same course as Andrea Amati (though
in a less degree), after which they awoke, as it were, to the reasonableness
of the example set by Gasparo, and gave us those instruments so
highly thought of by the connoisseur, the form of which has much
in common with that adopted by Niccol� Amati and perfected by Antonio
Stradivari. It has been before
remarked that Gasparo da Sal� did not arrive at his conclusions
without mature consideration. In fact, a long and deliberate process
of experiment may be traced in his instruments. We find that at
times his Violins and Violas were treated differently from the Accordos
and Violonos. The Violins are found to be high in model, while the
above-named instruments, evidently of the same date, are flat. He
would seem to have been desirous of testing the powers of either
model, and it is possible that he fostered the idea of varying the
construction of each of the four species in the family of stringed
instruments according to the part which should be allotted to it.
To treat each part of the stringed quartette in a different way
is certainly an error, for they are to be looked upon as gradations
of one and the same instrument; nevertheless, the attempt of Gasparo,
although mistaken, offers but another instance of his prolific ingenuity
and unwearied diligence. An praise is due to the great Brescian
maker for having opened up, as a pioneer, so wide a field of research.
The Cremonese artists followed up his clue, and brought the Violin
to the highest state of excellence.
The chief characteristics
of the works of Gasparo da Sal� are the sound-holes, shortened centre-bouts,
scroll, and peculiar choice of material. The length of the sound-hole
at first strikes one as somewhat crude, but as the eye becomes more
acquainted with the general form of the instrument, it is seen to
be in perfect harmony with the primitive outline. With this sound-hole
commences the pointed form to which Giuseppe Guarneri, nearly a
century and a half later, gave such perfection. The material used
for the larger instruments is mostly pear-wood, or wood of that
description, the quality of which is particularly fine. In the selection
of this wood he showed a still minuter discrimination, using it
generally for Accordos and Violonos, and not for Violins or Violas;
few specimens of the latter have backs of pear-wood. His work was
bold, but not highly finished; no other result could be looked for
at so early a date. The grain of the bellies is usually very even
and well defined. Signor Dragonetti, the late eminent Double-Bass
player, possessed three or four Double-Basses by this maker of various
sizes. The most celebrated of these instruments was presented to
him by the monks of the monastery of St. Mark's, Venice, about the
year 1776, and was returned to the Canons of that Church (the monks
and the monastery having been suppressed since the French occupation
of Venice in 1805 or 1809) after Dragonetti's death, in 1846. Another
was bequeathed by Dragonetti to the late Duke of Leinster. A third
is in the possession of the Rev. George Leigh Blake. Among his chamber
Double-Basses the one formerly belonging to Mr. Bennett is regarded
as a singularly perfect example. It was numbered with the rarities
of Luigi Tarisio's collection, and highly valued by him as a specimen
of the maker. Among his Violins, the instrument formerly owned by
Lord Amherst, of Hackney, is unique; the infancy of the Violin at
this period is better seen here than any specimen with which I am
acquainted. The Violin of this make which belonged to Ole Bull,
and with which I am familiar, is another well-known example. This
instrument is characteristic of its author. Its varnish is soft-looking
and rich, though paler than usual. The finger-board is inlaid, and
is made of a light description of wood. The head is carved and painted,
and is a very choice piece of Italian work. SANONI, Giovanni
Battista, Verona. About 1740. His instruments are seldom met with
in England. High model. SANTO, Giovanni,
Naples, 1700-30. Copied Amati. Varnish very hard, and workmanship
indifferent. SANZO, Milan. Middle
and early eighteenth century. Similar to Grancino. SARDI, ——,
Venice, 1649. A broken Violin bearing this name was at the Milan
Exhibition, 1881. SEIGHER, Girolamo.
Worked in the shop of Niccol� Amati from 1680 to 1682. SELLAS, Matteo, Lute-maker.
M. Chouquet, in his "Catalogue Raisonn�" of the instruments
at the Paris Conservatoire, mentions two Arch-Lutes made by this
maker. SERAFINO, Santo,
Udine—Venice, 1710-48. This maker is chiefly famed for the
exquisite finish of his workmanship. The modelling of his instruments
varied. There are instances, particularly in the case of his Violins,
where he has entirely set aside the Stainer form, and copied Amati.
These Violins are wonderfully like the work of Francesco Ruggeri.
The varnish upon them, of a rich red colour, is of so exceptional
a quality, that one is compelled to look twice before being satisfied
as to the author. The greater number, however, of his instruments
are of the German character, the sound-hole, scroll, and outline
all hinting of Stainer. These Venetians were wonderfully fortunate
in obtaining handsome wood, and in this respect Santo Serafino was
pre-eminent, for his sides and backs are simply beautiful to perfection.
His method of cutting the wood was invariably to show the grain
in even stripes. The scroll is well cut in point of workmanship,
but the style is poor. Santo Serafino cannot be regarded as having
displayed originality in any shape, and he thus forms an exception
to the great majority of Italian makers. His instruments are either
copies of Amati or of Stainer; there is, of course, a strong Italian
flavour about his Stainer copies, which lifts them above the German
school of imitators, and hence their higher value. Nearly all his
instruments were branded with his name above the tail-pin. He used
an ornamental label of large size. The Violoncello in the possession
of Mr. M. J. Astle is a charming specimen of Serafino's work, I
may say unequalled. SNEIDER, Josefo,
Pavia. Lancetti remarks that many of the Violins by Girolamo Amati,
son of Niccol�, were attributed to this maker. SOCCHI, Vincenzo,
1661, Bologna. In the Catalogue of M. Chouquet mention is made of
a Kit or Pochette by this maker in the Paris Conservatoire. SORSANA, Giuseppe,
1700-1750. Said to have been a pupil of Stradivari. Highly finished
work, varnish of beautiful quality. STATLEE, Anderl,
Genoa, about 1714. Signed himself as a pupil of Hieronymus Amati
(son of Niccol�). Not unlike the work of Urquhart. STREGNER, Magno,
Venice, Lute-maker. STORIONI, Lorenzo,
Cremona, about 1769 to 1799. The last of the old makers who evinced
any marked degree of originality. Although there is an almost total
absence of refinement in his works, there is much that is clever,
which has gradually caused these instruments to be valued very highly.
He appears to have made Giuseppe Guarneri del Ges� his idol. Although
his instruments cannot be considered as copies, yet there is evidence
of his having made use of the salient points belonging to Guarneri,
which he fitted, as it were, to his own model. He had much of the
disregard of mere appearance which Guarneri so often displayed,
and seems to have been guided by similar fancies. His freak was
to place his sound-holes in all sorts of ways, scarcely twice alike.
His outline is always vigorous, but without thought of symmetrical
appearance. There is not an instrument of his make that could have
been made upon a mould—they were built from the blocks, and
the result, as may be expected, is not graceful. M. Vieuxtemps,
some years ago, possessed himself of a Storioni Violin, now belonging
to Mr. Proctor, and, having carefully regulated it, succeeded in
bringing forth its great powers. His hearers were so delighted that
attention was speedily directed to this neglected maker. These instruments
are highly thought of in Italy. The varnish is not of the Cremonese
description, but partakes of the Neapolitan character. The purfling
is unusually narrow, and roughly worked; the scroll is stiff, and
the absence of finish is observable. The material he used was generally
good in point of acoustical properties, though not handsome. Storioni
does not appear to have made many Tenors or Violoncellos—the
latter are rarely met with. Storioni died in
1799. He lived at the house No. 3, Contrada Coltellai, which was
afterwards occupied by G. B. Ceruti. STRADIVARI, Antonio, Cremona.
The renown of this
remarkable maker of Violins is beyond that of all others; his praise
has been sung alike by poet, artist, and musician. His magic name
is ever rising to the lips in the presence of the "king of
instruments"; its sound is as familiar to the humble player
as to the finished artist. He has received the undisputed homage
of two centuries, and time seems but to add to the number and devotion
of his liege subjects: today he is as little likely to be dethroned
as Shakespeare. Although many interesting particulars concerning Antonio Stradivari have been obtained from time to time, there is wanting that which alone can fully satisfy his admirers, viz., connected records of the chief events of his life. Every endeavour has been made to supply, in some way, this deficiency, by consulting documents relating to the city of Cremona during the 17th and 18th centuries. The results of these inquiries are of much value, and the reader will be made acquainted with them in the following pages. With a patience worthy
of reward, the late librarian at Cremona, Professor Peter F�cit,
searched for the will of Stradivari, but as no proper register appears
to have been kept until long after the famous maker died, his efforts
were unsuccessful. Although the contents of the will might throw
but a faint light upon the doings of the testator, there might be
found particulars that would link together much of the information
we already possess. The date of birth
of Antonio Stradivari was made known to M. F�tis in 1856, upon evidence
contained in an inventory of instruments which belonged to Count
Cozio di Salabue. The inventory was made upon the occasion of the
instruments being deposited with Carlo Carli, a Milanese banker.
Among the Violins there appears to have been one by Antonio Stradivari,
bearing a label upon which, in the handwriting of its maker, was
stated his age, namely, ninety-two years, and the date 1736; thus
making the year of birth 1644.
Previous to the publication
of this evidence by M. F�tis, the date of birth was given as 1664,
and it has been stated as 1644 or 1650. Don Paolo Lombardini, in
his pamphlet on Stradivari published at Cremona in 1872, gives an
interesting genealogical account of the great Cremonese maker and
his family. The author follows the date of birth as stated by M.
F�tis. This is succeeded by information of his own discovery, namely,
the date of the marriage of Stradivari, July 4, 1667. He appears to have
married a widow named Capra, whose maiden name was Ferraboschi,
her age being twenty-seven, and that of Stradivari twenty-three,
according to the date given by Lombardini.
It is interesting
to find evidence of some importance relative to the question of
the age of Stradivari from the pen of Lancetti. He says, "Antonio
having worked to the age of ninety-three years, died in Cremona
in the year 1738, at the age of ninety-four years." Though
this is obviously incorrect (the regiter showing that he died in
1737), the extract serves to support the date of birth, resting
upon the evidence of the inventory, inasmuch as it satisfactorily
shows the age Stradivari was considered to be by his own family,
since Count Cozio communicated the information to Lancetti from
correspondence with Paolo Stradivari, son of Antonio. In passing,
it may be observed that Stradivari died December 18, 1737, and therefore
the year mentioned by his son Paolo was only incorrect by thirteen
days. He was equally as near the truth in saying his father was
ninety-four when he should have said he was in his ninety-fourth
year. Having referred to
the manuscript inventory, upon which rests the date of birth as
given by F�tis—which document, taken by itself, it must be
said is unsatisfactory—and having noticed the age of Stradivari
as represented by his son, I will turn to other evidence in support
of the inventory. The late Mr. Muntz, of Birmingham, possessed a
Violin by Stradivari, dated 1736, and, in writing, the age of the
maker is given as ninety-two. Another Violin by Stradivari, made
in the same year, and similarly labelled, was bequeathed by the
late Mrs. Lewis Hill to the Royal Academy of Music. This Violin
has been regarded as one of the instruments found in the maker's
shop when he died. It originally belonged to Habeneck, the well-known
professor, and was taken to Paris between the years 1824 and 1830.
Luigi Tarisio became possessed of some of the instruments mentioned
in the inventory found among the papers of Carlo Carli, the banker,
and one of these Violins in all probability furnished the evidence
of the date of birth referred to by M. F�tis, and both instruments
were probably purchased by Tarisio, together with the Violin dated
1716, named by Vuillaume "le Messie." The last instrument
necessary to notice in confirmation of the date, hitherto resting
alone on the inventory, was in the possession of the late M. H.
de St. Sennoch, of Paris. It is dated 1737, and in the handwriting
of Stradivari is his age, ninety-three years, which decides the
correctness of the statement made by Lancetti (upon the authority
of Count Cozio di Salabue, who received the information from Paolo
Stradivari in 1775) that "Antonio worked up to the age of ninety-three
years." In the absence of
direct information concerning the life of Stradivari, we must turn
to his instruments for such evidence as we require; and these, happily,
give us a greater insight into his career than would be readily
imagined. I am not aware that any Violin of Stradivari is known
in which it is stated that he was a pupil of Niccol� Amati, or that
the assumption has been maintained on any other grounds than the
indisputable evidence furnished by the early instruments of this
great maker. Never has affinity in the art of Violin manufacture
been more marked than that between Stradivari and Niccol� Amati
during the early life of the former. I have, in another place, remarked
upon the almost invariable similarity occurring between the works
of master and pupil, and have used this canon in refutation of the
doctrine that Giuseppe Guarneri del Ges� was ever a pupil of Antonio
Stradivari. Lancetti states that the instruments of Stradivari made
in 1665, and others in 1666, bear the label of Niccol� Amati, and
instances one that was in the collection of Count Cozio, to which
Stradivari made a new belly, many years later, in his best style.
It is certain that instruments as described by Lancetti have been
recognised by intelligent connoisseurs as wholly the work of Stradivari
(in which case, as may be imagined, they have no longer been allowed
to sail under false colours, but have had their proper certificate
of birth attached to them). In other instances the beautiful scroll
of Stradivari has been recognised on the body of an Amati, or the
sound-hole has shown that it was cut by the hand of Stradivari. Having met with a
Violin by Stradivari (since the publication of the first edition
of this work) dated 1666, it would appear that he left the workshop
of his master at that time, or not later than the year of his marriage
in 1667. The extracts obtained by Canon Bazzi from the parish registers,
relative to the pupils of Niccol� Amati, help to establish the correctness
of this view. Stradivari must have been in the workshop of his master
between the years 1658 and 1666. We have no information of the pupils
of Amati from 1654 to 1665. In 1666 the name of Giorgio Fraiser
is given; consequently Stradivari must have left previous to 1666
or early in that year, and prior to the registration. Between the
years 1666 and 1672 there is observable a marked change in style,
and the workmanship is better. The instruments he made about this
period have wood for the most part singularly plain, and different
in kind from what his master used. His use of this material I am
disposed to attribute to the want of means rather than choice. The
purfling of these early instruments is very narrow, and many of
the backs are cut slab-form. Previous to about the year 1672, we
find that his whole work is in accordance with the plans of Amati
(not as seen in the latter's grand pattern, but
in his ordinary full-sized instrument); the arching is identical,
the corners are treated similarly, the sound-hole is quite Amati-like
in form, yet easily distinguished by its extreme delicacy, the scroll
a thorough imitation of Amati, and presenting a singular contrast
to the vigorous individuality which Stradivari displayed in this
portion of his work a few years later. Enough has been said to enable
the reader to recognise the connection which must have existed between
Amati and Stradivari, to admit of such marked resemblances. Taking
the instruments of Stradivari as beacons throwing light upon many
curious and interesting points of the maker's manufacture, the number
and character of his Violins and Violoncellos made during the decade
following 1674 is indicative of his having increased both his reputation
and his patronage. The last year of this period, namely 1684, was
that in which his master, Niccol� Amati, died, at the age of eighty-eight.
We have already seen, in the notice of Amati, that Niccol� was the
last member of the family who maintained unbroken the long chain
of associations connected with the house of Amati, extending over
a period of a century and a half. The circumstance of all the tools,
patterns, and models of Niccol� Amati having passed into the possession
of his pupil Stradivari, and not into that of his son Girolamo (who
was then thirty-five years of age), clearly shows that the son did
not succeed to his father's business. We are thus led to believe
that during the ten years above referred to, Niccol� Amati had been
gradually lessening his activity, and that the patronage so long
enjoyed by the Amati family fell for the most part to his gifted
pupil, Antonio Stradivari. Among the interesting items of information
supplied by the efforts of Paolo Lombardini, relative to Stradivari,
is that of the purchase of the house, in 1680, of the Brothers Picenardi
for seven thousand imperial lire, equivalent to above �800 in present
English money. This purchase, made about fourteen years after Stradivari
began to manufacture on his own account, well marks the progress
he made. I have, however, further proof of his fame and prosperity
at this period in the valuable extracts from the manuscript of Desiderio
Arisi, at Cremona.
The knowledge Arisi
had of Stradivari is shown by the following remarks written by him
in the year 1720. He says, "In Cremona is also living my intimate
friend Antonio Stradivari, an excellent maker of all kinds of musical
instruments. It will not be out of place to make special mention
of his merits. His fame is unequalled as a maker of instruments
of the finest qualities, and he has made many of extraordinary beauty,
which are richly ornamented with small figures, flowers, fruits,
arabesques, and graceful interlaying of fanciful ornaments, all
in perfect drawing, which he sometimes paints in black or inlays
with ebony and ivory, all of which is executed with the greatest
skill, rendering them worthy of the exalted personages to whom they
are intended to be presented. I have thought proper, therefore,
to mention some works of this great master, in testimony of the
high esteem and universal admiration which he enjoys." These
prefatory remarks of Arisi are followed by several important statements,
which I have arranged in accordance with the different periods it
will be necessary to refer to in the course of this notice. "In the year
1682, on the 8th of September, the banker Michele Monzi, of Venice,
sent him an order for the whole set of Violins, Altos, and Violoncellos
which that gentleman sent as a present to King James of England."The
interesting remarks of Arisi with regard to the inlaid instruments
of Stradivari are those we should expect from an admirer of delicate
artistic work, who possessed no special knowledge of Violins as
instruments of music. The existence of some of the instruments to
which he refers, together with the tracings of the actual designs
and the tools with which the work was accomplished, render his observations,
read at this distance of time, peculiarly pleasing. The possessor
of the models, tools, labels, and drawings used by Stradivari is
the Marquis Dalla Valle, of Casale, to whom they passed by inheritance
from his great-uncle, Count Cozio, who purchased them in 1775.
Vincenzo Lancetti,
referring to the collection, after mention of Stradivari having
been buried in the Church of S. Domenico, continues, "As appears
from the correspondence held in 1775, by the said Count Cozio with
Antonio's son Paolo Stradivari, cloth merchant, when the former
bought of the latter all the remaining Violins, the forms, the patterns,
moulds, and drawings of the said celebrated Antonio, as well as
those of the Amati, with which he enriched his collection."
In an article published in the "Gazzetta Piedmontese,"
October, 1881, upon the occasion of the exhibition, at Milan, of
the relics of the shop of Stradivari, the writer gives the following
account of the negotiations: "Count Cozio, a great patron,
intimate with the greatest artists of the period, especially with
Rolla, purchased, through the instrumentality of the firm of merchants,
Anselmi di Briata, from Paolo and Antonio junior, respectively son
and nephew of Antonio Stradivari, in 1776, all the tools, drawings,
labels, &c., which had been used by the celebrated Violin-maker,
and his heirs, who were desirous that nothing belonging to him should
remain in his native town, as it is inferred, from a curious document,
hastened to conclude the sale." It is certain, however, that
Lancetti received his information from the Count himself, and negotiations
were certainly carried on between Paolo and the Count, either directly
or through his agents, Anselmi di Briata. The contents of the
letters of Paolo and Antonio Stradivari junior, which the Marquis
Dalla Valle has placed at my disposal, serve to explain the two
different accounts above given. We find that the Count had two distinct
transactions, directly or indirectly, with the family of Stradivari.
In 1775 he purchased the ten instruments made by Antonio which remained
out of ninety-one (complete and partly finished) left by the maker
at the time of his death in 1737. The payment in connection with
this transaction was arranged by the banker Carlo Carli, which gave
rise to the inventory upon which M. F�tis based his statement as
to the age of Stradivari. In the month of May, 1776, negotiations
were entered upon with Paolo Stradivari, relative to the tools,
which led to their being sold. During their progress Paolo died,
October, 1776, and the business was left for his son Antonio to
complete in December, 1776. The copies of the letters written by
Paolo and Antonio Stradivari are given in the fourth edition of
this work, and the chief part of the matter therein is referred
to in the Section, "The Violin and its Votaries." The next period to
be noticed relative to the work of Stradivari is that dating from
1686 to 1694. We here observe a marked advance in every particular.
The form is flatter, the arching differently treated. The sound-hole,
which is a masterpiece of gracefulness, reclines more. The curves
of the middle bouts are more extended than in this maker's later
instruments. The corners are brought out, though not prominently
so. Here, too, we notice the change in the formation of the scroll.
He suddenly leaves the form that he had hitherto imitated, and follows
the dictates of his own fancy. The result is bold and striking,
and foreshadows much of the character belonging to the bodies of
the instruments of his latter period, and though it may seem daring
and presumptuous criticism, I have often been impressed with the
idea that these scrolls would have been more in harmony with his
later works than those to which they belong. The varnish on the
instruments belonging to the period under consideration is very
varied. Sometimes it is of a rich golden colour, deliciously soft
and transparent; in other instances he has used varnish of a deeper
hue, which might be described as light red, the quality of which
is also very beautiful. The purfling is a trifle wider, but narrower
than that afterwards used. From the, Arisi MSS.
we have the following interesting information relative to this period:— "In the year
1685, on the 12th of March, Cardinal Orsini, Archbishop of Benevento,
ordered a Violoncello and two Violins, which were sent as a present
to the Duke of Natalona, in Spain. The Cardinal, besides paying
liberally for the work, wrote an appreciative acknowledgment of
their merits, and appointed the artist to the place of one of his
private attendants." It may be remarked that the honour conferred
upon Stradivari was equivalent to appointing him maker to the Archbishop. "In the same
year, on the 12th of September, Bartolomeo Grandi, called Il Fassina,
leader of the Court Orchestra of His Royal Highness the Duke of
Savoy, ordered of Stradivari a whole set of instruments for the
Court Orchestra." "In the year
1686, on the 5th of April, His Serene Highness the Duke of Modena
(Francesco II. D'Este was then twenty-six years of age) ordered
a Violoncello, which, by special invitation, Stradivari was requested
to take to the Duke himself, who told him how pleased he was to
make his personal acquaintance, praised greatly his work, and beyond
the sum agreed paid him thirty pistoles (golden Spanish) as a present." On the 22nd of August,
1686, Marquis Michele Rodeschini ordered a Viol da Gamba to be sent
to King James II. of England. In the year 1687
he made the set of instruments for the Spanish Court, inlaid with
ivory, and having a beautiful scroll work running round the sides
and scroll. Arisi evidently refers to this event in the following
extract: "On the 19th of January, 1687, the Marquis Niccol�
Rota ordered a Violoncello for the King of Spain." One of the
Violins of this set was purchased in Madrid about thirty years since
by Ole Bull. The Tenor belonging to this quatuor has lost its ivory
work, a blemish which is to be regretted. He also made, about this
period, some very small Violins with similar designs, instruments
evidently made to order. "On the 7th
of August of the same year, 1687, the nobleman Don Agostino Daria,
General-in-Chief of the Spanish Cavalry in Lombardy, while he was
residing in Cremona, obtained from him a Violoncello." We now reach the
year 1690, in connection with which Arisi has supplied information
of singular interest. He says: "On the 19th of September, 1690,
Stradivari received the following letter from the Marquis Bartolommeo
Ariberti, a Cremonese nobleman—'The other day I made a present
of the two Violins and the Violoncello which you made for me to
His Highness the Prince of Tuscany; and I assure you, to my great
satisfaction, he has accepted them with such pleasure that more
I could not expect. The members of his orchestra—and he possesses
a select number—were unanimous in expressing their great appreciation,
declaring the instruments quite perfect, and, above all, exclaiming
with one voice that they had never heard a Violoncello with such
an agreeable tone. For the highly flattering reception with which
my present has been received by His Highness, and which I cannot
sufficiently describe, I am principally indebted to the care which
you have used in the manufacture of the instruments. At the same
time I hope to have by this present shown you my appreciation, and
of having acquired the merit of practically bringing to the knowledge
of such a personage the truth of your great skill, which will procure
you, undoubtedly, many orders from this exalted house. To prove
this, I have now to request you to begin at once two Tenors, one Tenor and
the other Contralto, which are wanted to complete the
concerto.'" In the collection
of relics of the great master, in the possession of the Marquis
Dalla Valle, there are some items which appear to be connected with
this most interesting letter: I refer to the designs for a case,
or cases, for a concerto of instruments dated 1684, which Stradivari
himself describes as being for the Grand Duke of Florence. The date
upon these designs is indicative of the order for the Violins and
the Violoncellos having been given in that year (1684) by the Marquis
Ariberti, who at the same time gave certain instructions as to cases
and armorial designs. The completion of the order, however, appears
to have been delayed, and the instruments were not delivered until
1690. The instructions given in the above letter to Stradivari to
complete the concerto by making the Tenors (the patterns of which
are among those in the possession of the Marquis Dalla Valle, signed,
and dated 1690), and the existence of the Violoncello and one of
the Tenors at Florence, dated 1690, are confirmatory of the opinion
that the order was executed in 1690. The following inscription,
under the left shoulder or side, is in the Tenor: "Prima 20
Ottobre 1690 per S. A. Da Fiorenza." It is interesting to find
that the Grand Duke also possessed a Stradivari Violin, dated 1716,
which is in Florence, together with the instruments above referred
to. It is therefore evident that the belief of the Marquis that
Stradivari would receive further orders from the Grand Duke was
realised. Between the years
1690 and 1700 Stradivari made, together with the form of instrument
just described, that known to connoisseurs as the "long Strad."
We have here quite a differently constructed instrument; it is less
graceful, although there is no absence of the masterly hand throughout
the work. It has received the title of "long Strad" from
its increased length, as the name would imply. Fortified with the
experience which the variously constructed instruments referred
to had enabled him to gather, he would seem to have marshalled all
his forces in order to enter on an entirely new campaign, one that
should be alike glorious to himself and his art. That he succeeded
in achieving all that he could have desired, my readers will have
an opportunity of judging by the evidence I propose to offer. It
was about the year 1700 when Stradivari entered upon a new era in
his art. All his past labours appear to have been only measures
preliminary to that which he proposed afterwards to accomplish,
and were made for the purpose of testing, to the minutest degree,
the effect of particular modifications in the form and thickness
of his works. If we stay to consider
for a moment the field of research traversed by Stradivari before
entering upon what may be not inaptly named the golden period of
his life, artistically considered, we shall be better enabled to
appreciate his labours. Starting from the
days when he left the workshop of Niccol� Amati, we find him following
implicitly in the footsteps of his master. About 1686 he makes use
of the more commendable points belonging to the works of former
years, adding others of great beauty and utility. At this period
he begins to make his originality felt, continuing in this vein,
with but little intermission, down to about the year 1690, when
he again gives forth fresh evidence of his power to create, as shown
in the "long Strad." In expending his powers on those
instruments of varied proportions, it might occur to the mind of
the observer that he was undoing much that he had accomplished;
but I do not consider that such was the case. His project in making
these instruments together with those of larger
dimensions, evidences, in my opinion, a desire that he had of fairly
testing the result of changed methods of construction. The marked
variety of his work about this period of his life, I cannot but
regard as sufficient proof of the tentative character of the steps
he was taking in his art. From this brief summary
of the varied styles given to the works of this true artist, the
reader may gather some idea of the solidity of the foundation which
he laid, before trusting himself to raise those works which have
become monuments to his memory. That which I have
termed the golden period of Stradivari, commenced about 1700, at
which time he reached his 56th year: a time of life when it is a
rare occurrence to find genius asserting itself with any degree
of power—a time, if not of waning, at least of resting, when
the mind usually stays from giving forth originality bearing the
freshness of earlier years; but Stradivari, with a few other notable
instances in the field of art, forms an exception to this rule,
and he proves to us that his talent was then in its full vigour,
and ripe for new achievements. George Eliot's fancy well contrasts the painter
Naldo—
From about 1700 his
instruments show to us much of that which follows later. The outline
is changed, but the curves, blending one with another, are beautiful
in the extreme. The corners are treated differently. The wood used
for the backs and sides is most handsome, having a broad curl. The
scrolls are of bold conception, and finely executed. The varnish
also is very rich, and leaves nothing to be desired. It is not possible
to convey to the reader, by means of mere description, anything
approaching an adequate notion of the surpassing gracefulness of
the entire work of this epoch. The eye must be made the channel
to the mind. If the work is present, then, with the aid which these
remarks will afford, the reader may gain, by careful study, much
valuable insight into the beauties and genius of this famous artist,
together with much useful information. But during this period
of his maturity, even, we find that Stradivari did not absolutely
confine himself to making instruments as near as possible alike;
on the contrary, it is easy to point out certain variations, the
meaning of which he doubtless well understood. We find him guided
throughout this period by his usual ideas as regards grandeur of
outline and degrees of thickness; but the rotundity of the model,
the shape that he gave to the sound-hole, the method of setting
the sound-hole in the instrument, although, as before remarked,
all executed with a breadth of purpose which his earlier efforts
fail to show, may be cited as points in which he varied. I have
no hesitation in hazarding an explanation of the reasons that prompted
him to these differences of construction. It is my firm conviction
that these great makers had certain guiding principles as regards
the nature and qualities of the wood they used, and that Stradivari,
in particular, made the subject a special study. If this be granted,
I do not think there is any great difficulty in understanding the
meaning of the differences pointed out. If Stradivari constructed
his instruments upon philosophical principles, the chief element
of variation in the treatment of any particular instrument must
have been the difference of quality in the material;
it is evident that a method eminently successful when applied to
wood of a certain texture and character, would ensure as eminent
a failure if applied indiscriminately in all cases. To obtain wood
sufficient for two bellies that should be alike in every particular
is impossible, though cuttings should be made from the same piece;
and we find that the more the material varies in its nature, so
much the greater the variations—a fact which helps the view
advanced considerably. In another place I have stated that scarcity
of sycamore in the days of these old makers is impossible to understand,
but scarcity of a particular kind of sycamore is
easy to comprehend. He might have had a cartload of wood handsome
in appearance; but handsome wood combined with acoustical properties
he deemed needful, was another matter. With what extraordinary care
he permitted himself to use the lovely wood he did possess! There
are several instances where he has used, during one year, four or
five distinct cuttings of wood, more particularly as regards the
sycamore. These several cuttings include often the handsomest and
the plainest. A year or so later we find him again making use of
wood from the same cuttings, which proves satisfactorily that he
did not work up one piece before commencing with another. He would
seem to have kept back the handsomest wood for certain important
commissions. I have seen three Stradivari Violins of 1714, with
backs having but little figure, yet this was the year in which he
made the "Dolphin," which is regarded by the chief connoisseurs
in Europe as a chef-d'oeuvre of Stradivari. From
the days when it was in the possession of the Marquis de la Rosa
to the present time, its beauty has excited the admiration of the
Fiddle world. The splendour of the wood is unsurpassed in any Violin,
ancient or modern, and it was named the "Dolphin" from
the richness and variety of the tints it gives to the varnish. The
model is perfection; its solidity of construction and glorious varnish
all tend to make it unique. Its beauty is of a kind that does not
require the eye of the skilled connoisseur to recognise it; it causes
those to exclaim whose knowledge is limited to being aware that
it is a Fiddle. His making this superb work of art in the same year
in which he made instruments having wood quite opposite in figure,
bears out, I consider, what I have before stated, viz., that Stradivari
jealously guarded the material he possessed having both handsome
figure and valuable acoustical properties. Mr. Charles Reade says
of these "Strads": "When a red Stradivari Violin
is made of soft, velvety wood, and the varnish is just half worn
off the back in a rough triangular form, that produces a certain
beauty of light and shade which is, in my opinion, the ne
plus ultra. These Violins are rare; I never had but two in my
life."
It is conceivable
that a manufacture so successful as Violin-making proves itself
to have been in Italy during the seventeenth and part of the eighteenth
centuries, should give rise to scientific inquiry, in order to discover
the reason of the excellence of the best Italian instruments, and,
if possible, the principles or laws which guided the makers in the
exercise of their genius. That investigations of this character
should be attended with important results in connection with the
science of acoustics, is to be expected. As to laws or principles
of a scientific character, I doubt whether such were recognised
or understood when the excellence of the manufacture was greatest,
believing that Violin makers of the order of Stradivari must be
like poets, "born artificers, not made." The chief merits
of Stradivari and his contemporary makers were intuitive. Their
rules, having their origin in experience, were applied as dictated
by their marvellous sense of touch and cunning, with results infinitely
superior to any obtained with the aid of the most approved mechanical
contrivances. When to these considerations we add that devotedness
of purpose, without which nothing really great in art has been accomplished,
we have a catalogue of excellences sufficient to account for the
greatness of their achievements. Turning again to
the manuscript of Arisi, we find that "On the 12th of May,
1701, Don Antonio Cavezudo, leader of the private orchestra of King
Charles II. of Spain, wrote a highly complimentary letter to Stradivari
from Madrid, assuring him that though he had received bow instruments
from several makers, for different courts, yet he had never been
able to obtain them of such a refined and beautiful tone as those
made by him." Arisi adds that Don Antonio Cavezudo was also
in the service of the Duke of Anjou. M. F�tis, in his
notice of Stradivari, remarks: "The life of Antonio Stradivari
was as tranquil as his calling was peaceful. The year 1702, alone,
must have caused him much disquiet, when, during the war concerning
the succession, the city of Cremona was taken by Marshal Villeroy,
retaken by Prince Eugene, and finally taken a third time by the
French; but after that period Italy enjoyed a long tranquillity,
in which the old age of the artist glided peacefully away." A campaign had taken
place in Italy in 1701, when Prince Eugene, with thirty thousand
troops, out-generalled Catinat, the able French commander, giving
Louis XIV. the opportunity of placing the empty and presumptuous
Villeroy in command. Prince Eugene had greatly harassed the French
in Italy, when, in the night of February 1, 1702, he surprised the
French garrison of Cremona, and, though momentarily successful,
"missed the town," as Eugene said, "by a quarter
of an hour," but carried off the Commander-in-Chief, Villeroy,
which the popular song-writers of the day construed into "a
double gain to France"—Cremona saved, and Villeroy lost. It is conceivable
that Stradivari, together with his fellow-citizens, witnessed during
the year 1702 more of the pomp of war than was agreeable. The blowing
of trumpets, the beating of drums, and other martial sounds, would
be music not likely to touch pleasantly the ears of Stradivari,
apart from the discomfort attendant on military occupation. He,
however, appears to have practised his art with undiminished zeal,
judging from the following interesting information given by Arisi.
He says: "Stradivari made a complete set of bow instruments,
which he intended to present to Philip V. of Spain, on the occasion
of the passage of the King through Cremona; and he had prepared
a memorial to that effect; but he was dissuaded, and the instruments
are still in his possession." No date is supplied
with regard to the events above named; we are therefore left to
assign the period when the presentation was to have taken place
by reference to other sources of information. In an official diary
of the journey of Philip V. to Italy it appears that the King arrived
in Lombardy on the 10th of June, 1702, and that from Milan he went
to Lodi on the 1st of July, and made his entry into Cremona two
days later, July the 3rd, at one o'clock in the afternoon. Philip
remained several days in the town, receiving visits from the Dukes
of Parma and of Mantua, and held there several councils of war with
the generals of the allied armies (Spanish and French), and appears
to have left Cremona on the 20th of July for the seat of war near
Mantua. After the victories of Luzzara and Guastalla, the King passed
again through Cremona, arriving there on the 3rd of October, staying
one night, and leaving the following day for Milan. On this occasion
there was much festivity on account of the victories, and the King
distributed sums of money and presents for the wounded, the officers,
and the generals. It would therefore appear that Stradivari purposed
presenting the instruments to Philip either in July or October,
1702. The condition of affairs at Cremona at this period apparently
serves to explain the cause of Stradivari having been dissuaded
from presenting the instruments. "On the 10th
of November, 1702, the Marquis Giovanni Battista Toralba, General
of Cavalry and Governor of Cremona, sent for Stradivari, and, after
complimenting him on his peculiar genius, ordered two Violins and
a Violoncello, which were afterwards sent as a present to the Duke
of Alba. "In the year
1707, the Marquis Desiderio Cleri wrote to Stradivari, by order
of King Charles III. of Spain, from Barcelona, ordering for the
royal orchestra six Violins, two Tenors, and one Violoncello." This extract refers
to the Archduke Charles of Austria, afterwards Emperor Charles VI.
Charles III., aided by the British fleet, occupied Barcelona in
1706. We have, therefore, the interesting facts that Stradivari
made a complete set of instruments which he intended to present
to Philip V., and that he was afterwards commissioned to make another
set for Philip's opponent, the Archduke. Lorenzo Giustiniani,
a Venetian nobleman, wrote to Stradivari the following letter, which
he received July 7, 1716:—
"Venice, Giustiniani Palace, "It is generally
known that there is not at the present time in the world a more
skilled maker of musical instruments than yourself; and as I wish
to preserve a record of such an illustrious man and famous artist,
I trouble you with this letter, to ask whether you feel disposed
to make me a Violin, of the highest quality and finish that you
can bestow upon it." The following extract
from Arisi's manuscript brings us to the end of the interesting
information therein contained in reference to the subject of this
notice, and amply justifies the closing words of the author, who
says: "From what I have written it may be seen how great is
the excellence of Stradivari's art." "In 1715, on
the 10th of June, Giovanni Battista Vol�me, director of the private
orchestra of the King of Poland, arrived in Cremona, by special
order of the King, to await the completion of twelve Violins, which
had been ordered of Stradivari, and he remained here three months;
and when all the instruments were ready, he took them with him to
Poland." Arisi doubtless refers
to the Belgian musician Jean Baptiste Volumier, who was musical
director to Augustus, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, famous
as a patron of music and the arts. It was Augustus who appointed
Francesco Maria Veracini as his solo Violinist in 1720, and on the
title-page of the charming Sonatas of Veracini we read— "Dedicata The blending of the
names of Stradivari, Augustus, and Veracini, serves to carry our
thoughts into channels overflowing with interesting musical records.
Vol�me (Volumier) is said to have taken the instruments from Cremona
to Poland. It would therefore appear that the Royal Orchestra was
then stationed at Warsaw, the Court Musicians having to divide their
time between that city and Dresden. In these capitals Jean Baptiste
Volumier directed the music of the Elector Augustus from the year
1706 to 1728. Veracini was appointed solo Violinist in 1720 to Augustus,
and the instruments which Stradivari made for the King were, therefore,
only five years old. Though new, their tones were doubtless rich
and beautiful. Veracini, it may be assumed, saw, heard, and played
upon these comparatively new Stradivari Violins. He, however, whilst
fully alive to their sterling merits, played, in all probability,
upon his Stainers, which he named "St. Peter" and "St.
Paul," with more pleasure, from their being thoroughly matured.
The order given by Augustus to Stradivari, and the King's determination
to have it executed, throws a strong side-light on the lofty position
held by Stradivari as a maker of Violins. It also appears to furnish,
in some measure, an explanation of the length of time he took to
execute the order given by the Marquis Ariberti. We have here an
artist of European celebrity, who was incapable of executing indifferent
work. Commissions flowed from the chief courts faster than they
could be executed. The genius of Stradivari could not but be true
to itself. He scorned to sacrifice quality at the shrine of quantity.
His patrons had, therefore, to wait patiently for their instruments,
though it might be for years. The Elector of Saxony was evidently
resolved upon securing his Violins, and it cannot be denied that
the measures he adopted to accomplish his purpose did credit to
his perseverance, and reflected honour on the Raphael of Violin-making. Passing to the last
period of this great maker, we enter upon the consideration of a
set of instruments very distinct from those of an earlier date,
and which have given rise to a great divergence of opinion. Some
have gone to the extent of denying the authenticity of these works,
as far as they relate to Stradivari; others, again, admit that portions
of these instruments are from his hand, and finished by his sons
or Carlo Bergonzi. There are, doubtless, many exceedingly crude-looking
instruments passing under his name, bearing dates ranging from 1730
to 1737, in the making of which he has taken no part; but, on the
other hand, to deny that there are any works of Stradivari having
these dates is to deny established facts. He must be an ill-informed
judge of Violins who fails to recognise the hand of the master in
several splendid specimens of this period. The rich oil varnish
with which they are covered is precisely the same in quality as
that found upon the instruments belonging to other periods, and
which he used without exception throughout his career. It is, perhaps,
laid on less carefully, and its colour is more varied. In some instances
it is brown, and in others light red, the tone of colour varying
according to the number of coats. He seems to have used, generally,
more varnish upon these instruments than on his earlier ones. The
thickness of the coats is seen in those parts (on the back in particular)
where the varnish is worn and broken, caused, in all cases, by the
shoulder of the player and the lining of the case upon which the
back rests. It must be borne in mind that Stradivari had reached
a great age when he made these instruments, and he evidently felt
proud of his ability to continue his artistic labours after passing
his ninetieth year, from the number of Violins wherein, in his own
handwriting, he proclaimed himself a nonagenarian. It would not
be reasonable to expect to find so high a finish as in the instruments
made from 1700 to 1725, but even in these there is a finish distinct
from that of either his sons or Bergonzi. But, beyond this, there
is recognisable the splendid form, the masterly scroll, and the
perfect sound-hole. To say that Omobono Stradivari, Francesco Stradivari,
or Carlo Bergonzi had any share in these notable works, evidences
hasty judgment, if not ignorance of the style of those makers to
whom these instruments are attributed. The work of Carlo Bergonzi
is now pretty well understood; in England, particularly, we have
some glorious specimens. I need only ask the unbiassed connoisseur
if he can reconcile one of these instruments with those of Stradivari
of the period named. I have no hesitation in saying that there is
not a single feature in common. The work of the sons of Stradivari
is less known, but it is as characteristic as that of Bergonzi,
and quite as distinct from that of their father, if not more so.
The outline is rugged, the modelling distinct, the scroll a ponderous
piece of carving, quite foreign to Stradivari the elder, and the
varnish, though good, is totally different from the superb coats
found on the father's works of late date. The division of the
work of Stradivari into periods makes the reader more acquainted
with the maker's style. It must be remembered, however, that he
did not strictly confine himself to making instruments wholly of
one pattern at any time, although he certainly did so with but few
exceptions until the last period, when, as Lancetti rightly observes,
he used more frequently his earlier patterns. The exact spot where
Stradivari was buried was made known by the researches of Signor
Sacchi, a Cremonese conversant with the annals of his native city.
This was an interesting addition to the meagre information previously
handed down to us touching Stradivari. It had long been known that
a family grave was purchased by Stradivari in the church of San
Domenico, in the year 1729: but in the certificates from the Cathedral
of Cremona it is stated that he was buried in the tomb of Francesco
Villani, no mention being made of San Domenico. The exact words
are, "Buried in the Chapel of the Rosary, in the parish
of St. Matthew." The omission of the name of the church
wherein this chapel stood has led to the belief that the precise
spot where the mortal remains of Stradivari rest was unknown. Signor
Sacchi finds that the historians of Cremona (but especially Panni,
in his "Report on the Churches of Cremona, 1762") mention
that the Church of San Domenico was in the parish of St. Matthew,
and that the only chapel known by the name of "The Rosary"
was the third on the right, entering the Church of San Domenico. An important point
is mentioned by the historian above quoted, viz., that about the
year 1720 the Parish Church of St. Matthew being judged too full
to allow of further burials in its interior, the Church of San Domenico
(its subsidiary church) was chosen as a place of burial for the
parishioners, for which purpose it was used down to about 1780,
and that Stradivari purchased there the grave mentioned. This statement
is confirmed by the autograph letter of Count Cozio di Salabue,
of Casale Monferato, Piedmont.
The Church of San
Domenico was, in consequence of its decayed condition, demolished
about the year 1870. Becoming aware of what was taking place, I
gave instructions that a photograph should be taken of the chapel
in which the body of Stradivari was interred. This was accomplished
whilst the workmen were in the act of levelling the structure, and
it has been engraved on wood for the purpose of insertion in this
volume. The stone with the inscription "Sepolcro di Antonio
Stradivari E Svoi Eredi Anno 1729," which served to denote
the spot where the body was buried, is now preserved in the Town
Hall of Cremona. Signor Sacchi remembered it having been placed
in the corner, close to the steps and iron railing inside the third
chapel on the right, in the Church of San Domenico. M. F�tis says of
Stradivari, "We know but little respecting that uneventful
existence. Polledro, late first Violin at the Chapel Royal of Turin,
who died a few years ago, at a very advanced age, declared that
his master had known Stradivari, and that he was fond of talking
about him. He was, he said, tall and thin, habitually wore, in winter,
a cap of white wool, and one of cotton in summer. He wore over his
clothes an apron of white leather when he worked, and as he was
always working, his costume scarcely ever varied. He had acquired
more than competency by labour and economy, for the inhabitants
of Cremona were accustomed to say, 'As rich as Stradivari!'" The
house he occupied stands in the Piazza Roma, formerly called the
Square of San Domenico, in the centre of which was the church of
the same name. The house is still in good condition, and is the
principal place of interest in the old city of Cremona to the many
admirers of Stradivari who visit the seat of Violin-making in olden
times. After the death of Stradivari it was occupied by his sons
Omobono and Francesco; and afterwards by the maker's youngest son,
Paolo, who carried on there the business of a cloth merchant. Stradivari
worked on the ground floor, and used the upper storey for varnishing. It is somewhat singular
that the Cremonese take but little apparent interest in the matter,
and have expressed themselves as being astonished at the demonstrations
of respect which their French and English visitors pay to the hallowed
spot. The better-informed Cremonese have some acquaintance with
the name of Stradivari; but to create any enthusiasm among them
from the fact of his having been a Cremonese, or from the historical
associations which connect him with that city, would be difficult.
After the exercise of considerable patience and determination, Signor
Sacchi, in conjunction with a few Cremonese, managed to raise sufficient
enthusiasm among the inhabitants to permit the authorities to name
a street after Stradivari, and another after Amati. This worthy
act was performed by the late librarian, Professor Pietro Fecit,
who aided Signor Sacchi in his researches in connection with the
past of Cremona's Violin-makers. This street-naming
was much opposed at the time. The citizens of Cremona are, however,
not quite singular in this respect. It has been remarked that our
American friends show far greater interest in Stratford-upon-Avon
and its memories than we ourselves do. I must confess that I have
great respect for the genuine enthusiast. The Cremonese have
scarcely an idea of the extent of veneration with which we admirers
of the art regard their illustrious citizen. They will be astonished
to hear that "Stradivari" forms the Christian name of
some Englishmen. A well-known dealer, some years since, determined
to commemorate his admiration for the great maker, and, accordingly,
named his descendant "Stradivari Turner." We have stepped
out of the ordinary path of house nomenclature, and have adopted
the cherished name of "Stradivari" to the bewilderment
of the passer-by, whose unmusical soul fails to be impressed by
it. To crown our seeming eccentricities (in the eyes of our Italian
friends), I may mention that the magic name has found its way into
circles where little interest is taken in the subject of this notice,
judging from the following announcement, which appeared in the profane
pages of a newspaper: "Waterloo Purse.—E. Mr. Goodlake's
Gilderoy beat Earl of Stair's Stradivarius, and won the Purse;"
the result showing that Stradivari was evidently out of place in
such company. STRADIVARI, Francesco,
Cremona, 1720-43. Son of Antonio Stradivari. Worked with his brother Omobono
for several years. Many of the later works of Antonio Stradivari
have been attributed to his sons. The character of the work is wholly
distinct. I can well understand the error of attributing the instruments
of Francesco Stradivari to Carlo Bergonzi, there being many points
in common, but that so many marked specimens of the works of Antonio
should be deemed apocryphal is beyond my comprehension. The work
of Francesco is altogether less finished, but at the same time it
shows the hand of the master. The design is bold and original. The
tone of Francesco's instruments is invariably rich and telling. Lancetti states—speaking
of Francesco Stradivari—"After the death of his father,
he made several Violins and Tenors, to which he put his own name.
Although he did not succeed in perfectly imitating the works of
his father, the instruments which he made in the years 1740 and
1742, and which remained after his death in the possession of his
brother Paolo, were sold at the same price as those of his father,
as mentioned in the correspondence between Count Cozio and Paolo.
Francesco died at the end of 1742, the year Omobono died, and in
which he made the Violins bought by Count Cozio." The date
of death (as given by Lancetti), though incorrect by some months—he
having died May 11, 1743, aged 72 years—shows the care and
trouble taken to render the information as complete as possible,
these dates having been given without reference to registers, but
simply as stated by Paolo. STRADIVARI, Omobono,
Cremona, 1742. Brother of Francesco. Lancetti remarks, "Omobono
chiefly restored instruments and arranged and regulated them."
Francesco, it will be seen, survived his brother about thirteen
months, and with him, as with Girolamo Amati, the son of Niccol�,
we reach the end of the family's long and historical career of Violin-making.
Upon the death of Francesco, the shop in the Piazza San Domenico
(now named Piazza Roma) was closed, after having been occupied by
the family of Stradivari as Violin-makers for upwards of sixty-three
years. From here were sent into cathedral, church, and royal orchestras
the largest number of Violins and kindred instruments ever made
by one maker—instruments which bore the indelible stamp of
genius and have gladdened the sight and hearing of untold thousands.
The famous shop, as previously noticed, was next opened by Paolo
Stradivari, who was a cloth merchant or warehouseman. Paolo died
in 1776, a year after the date of the correspondence which passed
between him and Count Cozio di Salabue. Antonio, son of Paolo, born
in 1738 and married in 1762, had a son Giacomo, born in 1769 and
married in 1797. Cesare, the son of Giacomo, became a physician
in Cremona, married in 1838, and left, as the representative of
the Cremonese branch of the family, Dr. Libero Stradivari, a barrister-at-law
and an excellent performer on the flute. SURSANO, Spirito,
Coni, 1714-35. TANEGIA, Carlo Antonio,
Milan, early in the 18th century. TANINGARD, Giorgio,
Rome, 17—. TECCHLER, David,
Rome, 1680-1743. A highly esteemed maker. He worked in Venice, Salzburg,
and Rome, chiefly in the latter city. His instruments vary in form,
some having a marked German style: they are high-modelled, and the
sound-hole partakes of the Stainer character. These were probably
made in Salzburg, to the order of his patrons. Those instruments
which date from Rome are chiefly of the Italian type, and are so
much superior to the others that it seems difficult to reconcile
varieties so distinct as the work of the same man. They are finely
formed, have splendid wood, and rich varnish of a yellow tint; the
bellies are of a mottled character, similar to those so much used
by Niccol� Amati. His Violoncellos are among the finest of his instruments.
They are mostly of a large size. TEDESCO, Leopoldo,
pupil of Niccol� Amati. He went to Rome. I have seen a Violin of
his make dated from there 1658. Workmanship a little rough, good
varnish, Amati outline. TESTORE, Carlo Giuseppe,
Milan, about 1690 to 1720. The form resembles that of Guarneri.
The wood is often plain in figure. TESTORE, Carlo Antonio,
Milan, about 1730 to 1764. Son of Giuseppe. Copied Guarneri and
Amati. These instruments are bold and well made; their tone is excellent;
wood often plain in figure. TESTORE, Giovanni,
son of Carlo Antonio. TESTORE, Paolo
Antonio, Milan, about 1740. Brother of Carlo Antonio. Copied Guarneri. The varnish
is mostly yellow; frequently unpurfled. TIEFFENBRUCKER, Leonardo,
Padua, 1587. Lute-maker. TODINI, Michele,
seventeenth century, a native of Saluzzo, lived for many years at
Rome. Todini was the inventor and maker of a great number of musical
contrivances, in which clockwork played an important part. He occupied
himself with this manufacture for several years, and turned his
house into a kind of musical museum. He published in 1676 a pamphlet
describing its contents. His name is associated with our subject
in having adopted a new mode of stringing the Violono, or Double-Bass,
by using four strings, and playing himself upon the instrument at
oratorio performances in Rome. I have mentioned in Section I. that
the Violono was originally used with several strings—five,
six, or seven—and with frets. Todini is therefore credited
with having introduced the method of stringing the Double Bass which
led to the conversion of the old Violonos into Double-Basses fitted
for modern requirements. TONONI, Carlo, Bologna.
At the exhibition at Milan in 1881, an inlaid Kit, of beautiful
workmanship, was exhibited of this maker. TONONI, Carlo Antonio,
Venice, born at Bologna, probably a son of the above. The model
varies very much; those of the flat pattern are excellent instruments.
They are large, and beautifully made. The varnish, though inferior
to that of Santo Serafino, is similar. These Violins are branded
above the tail-pin. His instruments date from about 1716. TONONI, Giovanni,
about 1700. Similar characteristics. TONONI, Felice,
Bologna. TONONI, Guido,
Bologna. TOPPANI, Angelo de,
Rome, about 1740. Scarce; workmanship resembles that of Tecchler. TORTOBELLO, Francesco,
Rome, 16—. Maggini characteristics. TRAPANI, Raffaele,
Naples, about 1800. Large pattern; flat model; purfling deeply laid;
edges sharp; scroll heavy. VALENZANO, Gio. Maria,
Rome, 1771 to about 1830. Neapolitan character; neat work; varnish
excellent in some specimens, being soft and transparent. VETRINI, Battista,
Brescia, about 1629. Yellow varnish of good quality; handsome wood;
rather small. VIMERCATI, Paolo,
Venice, about 1700. Similar to Tononi. Jacob Stainer is said to
have worked in the shop of Vimercati. WENGER, Padua, Lute-maker,
1622. ZANNETTO, Pellegrino,
Brescia, 1547. M. Chouquet in his "Catalogue Raisonn�"
of the instruments at the Conservatoire in Paris, describes a six-string
Viol da Gamba of this make. ZANOLA, Giovanni
Battista. Flat model; rough workmanship; German character. Joannes Baptista
Zanola, Verona, 17— ZANOLI, Giacomo,
1740-80. Verona. Worked in
Venice, Padua, and Verona. Venetian character. ZANOTTI, Antonio,
Mantua, about 1734. Antonius Zanotus,
fecit Mantu�, anno 1734. ZANTI, Alessandro,
Mantua, 1765. He copied Pietro Guarneri, but had little knowledge
of varnishing, if we are to judge from the few instruments of this
maker extant. ZANURE, Pietro, Brescia,
1509. A maker of Viols. ZENATTO, Pietro,
Treviso, about 1634. CONTENTS
SECTION II.—THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE VIOLIN. ITALIAN AND OTHER STRINGS. SECTION
III.—THE ITALIAN SCHOOL. THE ITALIAN VARNISH. THE ITALIAN
MAKERS . |