CHAPTER LXVII.

THE WAR OF LIBERATION AND THE FALL OF NAPOLEON

 

 

NAPOLEON’S twenty-ninth bulletin from Molodetschno, which arrived in Paris only two days before himself, had at length communicated the real state of the grand army and filled the Parisians with consternation. He was welcomed by the Legislative Body with its usual servile adulation; and in a few days the misfortunes of the Russian campaign seemed to be forgotten. Napoleon immediately began to prepare for the great struggle which awaited him. The conspiracy of Malet had shown that his dynasty depended only on his own life. To obviate this danger, he determined on the establishment of a Regency. A law was passed for that purpose, and the Emperor, by letters patent of March 30th, appointed the Empress Maria Louisa Regent. The Arch-Chancellor Cambacérès was named First Counsellor of the Regency, the Duke of Cadore (Champagny) Secretary. In order to strengthen his Government by conciliating the clergy, who, since his misfortunes, had displayed strong symptoms of opposition, Napoleon reconciled himself with Pope Pius VII who was still residing at Fontainebleau, and concluded with him a new Concordat. But his principal cares were directed to the raising of an army. As the conscription of 1812 was far from sufficing for that purpose, a Decree was issued requiring 100,000 men from the National Guard, another 100,000 from the conscriptions of the last four years, and the same number from the conscription of 1814. The latter was raised to 150,000, and thus the army was reinforced by a total of 350,000 men. But this was not all. Appeals were made to the patriotism and to the fears of the nation. The cry of 1793 against the Coalition was again raised, the country was proclaimed to be in danger, and under the influence of the excitement thus produced, the Senate voted, April 3rd—Prussia having then declared herself—another 18,000 men. Among these was to be a guard of honor of 10,000 young men selected from the foremost families of France. Thus the French army was again put upon a most formidable footing; but it was very deficient in cavalry, especially light horse—a circumstance which deprived Napoleon’s victories in 1813 of all adequate results.

One of the first consequences of the Russian campaign was the abandonment of Napoleon by his German allies, for which the Prussian general Yorck had given the signal. Instead of joining Marshal Macdonald, the commander of his division, at Tilsit, Yorck had concluded with the Russian General Diebitsch a capitulation at Tauroggen, December 20th, 1812, by which the Prussian corps was to separate itself from the French army and remain neutral. Yorck, in concluding this convention, believed himself to be acting in conformity with the secret wishes of Frederick William III, and though that Sovereign and his Minister Hardenberg deemed it proper, or politic, to censure the act, and even to supersede Yorck by General Kleist, yet his act ultimately obtained a formal approval (March 11th). The general feeling of the Prussians, and especially of some of their leading men, inclined for an alliance with Russia. Many distinguished Prussians had actually entered Alexander’s service. The Baron von Stein had been in constant attendance upon him since May, 1812; while Clausewitz and several other Prussian staff-officers had taken service in the Russian army. When, by the progress of the Russian arms, Stein was enabled to visit Konigsberg, he assembled the States of Prussia, and with the help of Dohna and Clausewitz organized a militia of 30,000 men.

Hardenberg, however, at first deemed it prudent to deceive Napoleon by renewed professions of friendship. In order to obviate the impression which Torek’s defection was likely to produce in France, Prince Hatzfeldt was dispatched to Paris in January, 1813, with assurances of steadfast alliance on the part of Prussia. Yet, at the same time, Frederick William was negotiating with Russia, and, for the purpose of better concealment, at Stockholm. Soon after, General Krusemark was sent ambassador to Paris, to prepare matters gradually for a rupture. He was instructed to demand 93,000,000 francs as an excess of supplies furnished to the French armies under the Convention of February, 1812. Towards the end of January the King of Prussia suddenly left Potsdam, where he was in danger of a coup de main on the part of the French, and proceeded to Breslau; taking with him, however, the French ambassador. But after this step his intentions could not much longer be concealed, especially as he now began to be surrounded by such men as Bleacher, Gneisenau, and Prussia Scharnhorst. On February 3rd he issued a proclamation calling to arms all Prussians from the age of seventeen to forty-four, and he soon after authorized the formation of volunteer corps. By engagements with France, the regular army, as we have seen, could not be carried beyond 42,000 men; but so large a portion of the Prussian youth had been quietly exercised in the use of arms, that the King could at any time dispose of 150,000 men. A treaty of alliance with Russia was signed by Hardenberg at Breslau, February 27th, and on the following day by Kutusov at Kalisch. By this treaty Russia engaged to provide 150,000 men for the ensuing war, and Prussia at least 80,000, exclusive of garrisons. By a separate and secret article, the Emperor of Russia undertook that Frederick William should be reinstated in all the dominions which he had possessed before the war of 1806, with the exception of the Electorate of Hanover. Alexander himself arrived at Breslau March 15th, and on the following day the Russian alliance was notified to the French ambassador, who immediately took his departure. On March 27th Krusemark delivered to the French Foreign Minister the Prussian declaration of war.

As a complement to the alliance of February 27th, an agreement was concluded between Russia and Prussia, March 19th, as to the method of conducting the war. All German Princes who did not aid in the war of liberation were to be declared deposed from their thrones. The dissolution of the Con­federation of the Rhine had been proclaimed by Field-Marshal Kutusov at Kalisch, March 25th. The Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin had renounced it before the appearance of this proclamation (March 14th), and the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz followed soon after (March 30th).

Austria, like Prussia, was preparing to throw off the French alliance covertly and by degrees, although it seems certain that the Cabinet of Vienna had already determined, in the middle of December, on joining Russia. Prince Schwarzenberg had conducted the war on the part of Austria without any vigor. At the invitation of Alexander, he had concluded at Warsaw an armistice with the Russians, December 21st, and towards the end of January, 1813, he retired towards Cracow and the frontiers of Galicia, taking with him Poniatowski and the Polish army, and abandoning Warsaw to the Russians by capitulation. Austria assumed for the present the attitude of an armed neutrality, and offered her mediation; in which policy she was joined by Saxony. The allies had hoped to draw the King of Saxony to their cause, and that his example would decide the other Confederates of the Rhine. But Frederick Augustus III turned a deaf ear to their overtures; retired to Plauen, then to Ratisbon, in the dominions of his brother-in-law, King Maximilian Joseph; and finally, towards the end of April, at the invitation of the Emperor Francis, to Prague; whither he was accompanied by his family and troops. By the Convention of Vienna, he agreed to cede the Duchy of Warsaw, if that point should be made an indispensable condition of peace; Austria undertaking that he should receive a suitable indemnification so far as circumstances should permit.

Policy of Great Britain.

Great Britain, besides the part she was taking in the Peninsular war, was also engaged at this time in a war with the United States of North America, arising out of maritime questions connected with the Continental System. This war, however, which lasted from June, 1812, to the Peace of Ghent, December 24th, 1814, had little or no effect on the general affairs of Europe. But, although the two wars alluded to were enough to occupy the attention, and employ the resources, of Great Britain, she, nevertheless, took an active part in the affairs of the Continent.

We have seen that, by the treaty between Sweden and Russia, of April 5th, 1812, the former Power had engaged to take part in the war against Napoleon, after she should have been put in possession of Norway. The English Government, when their accession to this Convention was requested, appeared disposed to support it with subsidies; but, probably from a suspicion that Bernadotte was the secret friend of Napoleon, they required that Sweden should first take an active part in the war, by sending an army into Germany. So long as Prussia remained the ally of France, this step was impracticable; but, after the catastrophe of the French army, the objection vanished. In the spring of 1813, negotiations were renewed with Sweden, and on the 3rd of March, a treaty was concluded at Stockholm, between that Power and Great Britain. The English Government was desirous that Denmark should be made a party to the arrangements, which included the cession of Norway to Sweden, and negotiations were opened, through Russia, with the Danish Government. Sweden declared that she should be content with the Norwegian Duchy of Drontheim, as the possession of that province would release her armies from the danger of being turned by the Danes, and she offered in exchange her possessions in Pomerania. These proposals were, however, rejected, and Sweden then reverted to her demand of all Norway. By the treaty mentioned, Great Britain agreed to cooperate in that purpose. Sweden engaged to employ on the Continent an army of at least 30,000 men, under the command of the Crown Prince, and Great Britain undertook to furnish a million sterling for their equipment and maintenance. She also ceded to Sweden the French island of Guadaloupe, which she had conquered. Prussia also concluded a treaty with Sweden, April 22nd, 1813, by which she engaged to add a corps of 27,000 men to the army commanded by the Crown Prince, and Charles XIII. also entered into an alliance with the provisional Spanish Government, March 19th. But, in spite of these treaties, it was not till the following August that Sweden declared war against France.

Napoleon no sooner ascertained the intention of Charles XIII to enter the Coalition, than he threatened to send 40,000 men to the aid of Denmark. The Crown Prince answered this threat by his celebrated letter of March 23rd, 1813, in the composition of which Madame de Stael is supposed to have been concerned. Bernadotte formed a counter-scheme to overthrow Napoleon, by means of the French themselves, by recalling from banishment General Moreau, who was then residing at Morrisville, in New Jersey. It was thought that many of the French would join the hero of Hohenlinden, including the prisoners set at liberty by Russia and England. Moreau was sent for, and arrived at Helsingborg, August 6th, but, unfortunately, only to meet his death shortly after.

The Emperor of Russia had also succeeded in conciliating the Poles to his cause, chiefly by means of his friend and confidant, the Polish Prince, George Adam Czartorynski. A Russian party had been organized by Czartorynski in Warsaw, which looked forward to the re-erection of the Kingdom of Poland, not by means of Napoleon, but through the powerful and beneficent Emperor of Russia. Alexander appears not to have given any direct sanction to this scheme; but he assured the Poles of his friendship, and promised that his troops should treat them as friends and brothers.

Napoleon started from St. Cloud, to take the command of his armies in Germany, April 15th, 1813. Meanwhile, Murat had conducted the retreat of the French from Russia by Konigsberg and Dantzic as far as Posen, when he told his officers that it was no longer possible to serve a madman; that there was not a Sovereign in Europe who any longer trusted Napoleon’s word or his treaties; that for his own part he could have made peace with England; that he was as much the King of Naples as Francis was Emperor of Austria. It was in vain that Davoust, the Prince of Neufchatel and the Viceroy Eugene remonstrated; Murat set off by post, January 16th, for his Neapolitan dominions in the disguise of a German traveler, thus abandoning the trust which Napoleon had confided to him. After his departure, Eugene had the courage to place himself at the head of the remnant of the grand army, about 12,000 men. The retreat from Posen to Leipsic reflects on Eugene the greatest honor. He arrived at Leipsic, by way of Berlin and Wittenberg, March 9th, and having been joined on his march by many scattered bands, he then counted 50,000 men under his standards. Thus when all seemed lost he was mainly instrumental in restoring the balance of fortune, and gained time for Napoleon to re­appear upon the scene. Besides the force under Eugene, there were also upwards of 60,000 French distributed in Prussian and Polish fortresses.

Meanwhile the Russians had entered Prussia, and were everywhere received by the inhabitants as deliverers. Some of their light troops having pushed on as far as Hamburg, the inhabitants rose against the French garrison, which had been much reduced by the departure of General Lauriston, and constrained General Carra St. Cyr to cross the Elbe; when the Russian troops were admitted into the town, March 18th, and the port was thrown open to the English. Wittgenstein, leaving Berlin with the Russian van, March 29th, met and defeated Eugene at Mockern, April 5th, who thereupon retreated to Magdeburg, and ultimately took up a position on the Saale, while Wittgenstein fixed his quarters at Dessau. The main body of the Russians, under Alexander in person and Kutusov, was at this time at Kalisch. The Prussian army had also been placed under the command-in-chief of Kutusov. The allied army began to move, April 7th. Win-zingerode and Blucher traversing Lusatia, arrived before Dresden, when Davoust retired with his forces, after blowing up a great part of the bridge. The allies entered the old town of Dresden, April 26th. Kutusov having died on the 28th, the command-in-chief was conferred on Wittgenstein.

Napoleon arrived at Erfurt, April 25th, and assumed the command of his forces. A campaign was now to open on a scale never before seen in Europe. The line of operations embraced the whole Continent, from the Baltic to the Adriatic, besides the incidental war in the Spanish Peninsula. The French left rested on Lübeck and Hamburg; their right on Verona and Venice. This line may be divided into three portions: the first being comprised between Hamburg and the Erzgebirge, at the southern extremity of Saxony; the second between the Erzgebirge and Tyrol, and the third between Tyrol and the Adriatic. The first, or northernmost of these divisions, was to be the main scene of action, and was occupied by the grand French army, estimated at 250,000 men. A Bavarian corps on the Inn, and the French reserves at Wurzburg, held the second portion of the line; making a total force in Germany of about 350,000 men. In Italy, an army of 40,000 men was posted on the Tagliamento. Napoleon formed a junction with the army of Eugene on the 29th, between Naumburg and Merseburg on the Saale. Some Prussian corps were driven back at Weissenfels, and the French army took the road to Dresden. In order to intercept this march, the Russians and Prussians, under the Emperor Alexander and King Frederick William III in person, had concentrated themselves at Leipsic, whence they marched out to meet the French on the plains of Lutzen, famous for the last battle and death of Gustavus Adolphus. Napoleon was ignorant of their position, and came upon them almost by surprise. His forces were far superior in number, consisting of 115,000 men, while those of the allies were under 70,000. The allies were defeated after an obstinate battle at Lutzen or Gross Gorschen, May 2nd, which, however, was anything but decisive ; in fact, both sides claimed the victory. The allies retreated, as they asserted, only on account of their numerical inferiority; they lost no guns nor prisoners, and retired in good order, unpursued by the enemy. This result was chiefly owing to Napoleon's deficiency in cavalry, while the allies were very strong in that arm. In this battle, General Scharnhorst was mortally wounded.

The allies retreating in two columns, crossed the Elbe, May 7^th, the Russians at Dresden, the Prussians at Meissen, and again formed a junction at Bautzen. Here they took up a strong position, and having received large reinforcements, determined to await another battle. The French entered Dresden, May 8th, where Napoleon halted awhile to refresh his army, and to conduct some negotiations with Saxony and Russia.

The allies had profited by Napoleon’s delay of ten days at Dresden to strengthen their position at Bautzen with field- works. Their left, under Wittgenstein, rested on the mountains of Bohemia; their right, commanded by Blucher, was covered by the Spree and the little town of Bautzen. Their whole army, which Alexander commanded in person, numbered 96,000 men, of which 68,000 were Russians. The French army consisted of about 148,000 men. Napoleon attacked the allies, May 20th and 21st. On the first day the French carried the town of Bautzen; on the next day Napo­leon broke the allied center, and compelled them to retreat. A movement of Ney's contributed much to the victory. He had been detached with a strong corps, apparently against Berlin, but suddenly retraced his steps, and fell upon the right of the allies. Covered by their numerous cavalry, the allies retired in good order towards Lauban and Gorlitz, leaving to Napoleon the field of battle, strewn with 50,000 bodies. The French attacked the Russian rear-guard at Reichenbach, May 22nd, but were terribly maltreated and lost several guns. A few days after, Wittgenstein was super­seded in the chief command by Barclay de Tolly. The allies, instead of proceeding to Breslau, struck to the right towards Schweidnitz, and formed an intrenched camp at Pulzen, May 29th. Napoleon, on the other hand, pushed on to Breslau, which he entered June 1st; an advance which somewhat endangered his base of operations. In the north of Germany, the French and Danes under Davoust recovered Hamburg, May 30th, and took a terrible vengeance for their expulsion, by driving out 48,000 of the inhabitants, and razing 8,000 houses. In conformity with the orders of Napoleon, a regular reign of terror was now inaugurated, combined with systematic pillage, including that of the bank. Liibeck, which was entered by the French June 3rd, was treated in the same manner.

After the battle of Bautzen, Napoleon renewed the attempt oat negotiation, and an armistice was concluded at the village of Poischwitz or Pleistwitz, near Jauer, June 4th. The armistice was to last till July 20th, with six days' notice of its termination. Napoleon now returned to Dresden and employed the interval in preparing the plan of the ensuing campaign, which was calculated on the no longer doubtful accession of Austria to the allies. England took an active part in organizing the Fifth Coalition. Lord Cathcart, the English Ambassador to the Court of St. Petersburg, and Sir Charles Stuart, brother of Lord Castlereagh, accredited to the Court of Berlin, both which Ministers followed the movements of the allied armies, concluded treaties with Eussia and Prussia at Eeichenbach. By that with Prussia, signed June 14th, Great Britain agreed to pay a subsidy of £666,666 sterling for the maintenance of 80,000 men during the remaining six months of the year. If the allied arms should prove successful, the King of Prussia was to be reinstated in the dominions which he had possessed before the war of 1806. Frederick William III. on his side engaged to cede the bishopric of Hildesheim and some other territories to Hanover. By the Treaty with Russia, June 15th, the Emperor Alexander agreed to keep in the field an army of 160,000 men, for which he was to receive from the British Government the sum of £1,333,334 to January 1st, 1814. It was also agreed to issue five millions sterling in notes, called federate money, guaranteed by Great Britain, Russia, and Prussia, of which Russia was to dispose of two-thirds, and Prussia of the remainder. At this time, while Austria was offering her mediation for the restoration of a continental peace, she was negotiating with the allies; and the Austrian plenipotentiaries were consulted about the plan of the future campaign.

These negotiations were to be kept secret; but Napoleon learned them all, and in a violent scene with Count Metternich, whom the Cabinet of Vienna had sent to Dresden to propose a peace Congress, he accused that Minister of receiving bribes from England. It was, however, agreed that a Congress should assemble at Prague, July 5th, under Austrian mediation, and the armistice was prolonged to August 10th. None of the parties, however, were in earnest in this matter; they were only seeking to gain time. The Congress did not assemble till July 26th, when only a fortnight remained unexpired of the term agreed upon for the armistice. Meanwhile Russia, Austria, and Prussia had concluded an eventual treaty of alliance at Trachenberg, afterwards converted into a definitive one by the Treaty of Toplitz, September 9th, had arranged a plan of campaign, and appointed Prince Schwarzenberg commander-in-chief. During this period Napoleon, on his side, concluded a treaty of alliance with Denmark, July 10th.

Many symptoms seemed to betoken Napoleon's approaching fall. Discontent prevailed in France, where the Legitimists were again active; Jourdan had been completely defeated by Wellington at Vittoria ; the King of Naples was treacherously negotiating with Austria and England. Nevertheless, though Napoleon was aware of Murat's conduct, he was again summoned to take the command of the French cavalry. That force had now been increased to 40,000 men, and Napoleon relied only on Murat for the command of large bodies of horse. The allied armies, since the junction of Austria, were much superior iu number to the French. The main body, under Prince Schwarzenberg, stationed on the Eger in Bohemia, and composed of Austrians, Russians, and Prussians, comprised about 237,000 men, with 698 guns. The army in the March of Brandenburg, composed of Swedes, Russians, and Prussians, and commanded by Bernadotte, numbered upwards of 150,000 men with 387 guns. Bliicher's army in Silesia consisted of about 95,000 Prussians and Russians, with 356 guns. It must be remembered, however, that a considerable part of these forces was engaged in blockades and sieges. The Austrians had besides upwards of 24,000 men, and 42 guns on the frontiers of Bavaria ; 50,000 men and 120 guns in Italy; and a reserve of about 50,000 men between Yienna and Pressburg. The Russian army of reserve in Poland numbered more than 57,000 men. The estimates of Napoleon's armies vary, but there can be no doubt that they were considerably inferior in number to those of the allies. He himself, however, had been reckoned as equivalent to 100,000 men.

Battles of Gross Beeren and Katzbach

Napoleon opened the campaign by despatching Oudinot with 80,000 men against Bernadotte in Brandenberg. On August  23rd, Oudinot, who had been rather too slow in his movements,  engaged Billow's Prussian corps at Gross Beeren; when, towards the end of the action, the Swedes came up, and the French were entirely defeated with the loss of 26 guns, 1,500 prisoners, and a great deal of baggage. Napoleon himself marched against Bliicher in Silesia, imagining that he could dispose of that General before attacking the main body of the allies. As the French had violated the armistice by levying contributions in neutral districts, Blücher had also advanced before the term agreed upon had expired, had occupied Breslau August 14th, and driven the French over the& Bober. According to a preconcerted plan,Blücher retreated on the approach of Napoleon with his guards; and as the main body of the allies had begun to debouch from Bohemia into Saxony by the left bank of the Elbe, Napoleon was compelled to hasten back to the defence of Dresden. No sooner was he gone than Blücher attacked the French under Macdonald on the Katzbach, August 26th, and gained a decisive victory, capturing 18,000 prisoners, 103 guns, 2 eagles, and a great quantity of baggage wagons.

The advance of the allied army upon Dresden is said to have been counselled by Moreau, who had arrived at the headquarters at Prague, August 16th. The van of the allies arrived before that city on the 25th. Had an assault been immediately delivered it might probably have succeeded, as Napoleon was still absent with his best troops. But it was deemed advisable to wait till more troops had come up, and meanwhile Napoleon re-entered Dresden on the morning of the 26th, having, it is said, marched more than eighty miles in three days. The attack of the allies was repulsed, and next day they were defeated with great loss, including 18,000 prisoners. In this battle Moreau was killed by a cannon-ball, on the heights, about two miles from the town. Murat and Yandamme followed the allies in their retreat to Bohemia, which was effected in good order, being covered by the Russian General Ostermann. Vandamme, relying on being supported by Napoleon, prolonged his pursuit too far. Ostermann, who had been reinforced by an Austrian corps, defeated him at Kulm, August 30th, when, instead of the expected aid, he found a Prussian corps in his rear. At Nollendorf, his division, which consisted of about 30,000 men, was entirely surrounded and routed, and two thirds of it either killed or captured. Among the prisoners was Vandamme himself.

In the north, Ney, who had assumed the command of Oudinot's division, began from Wittemberg a march upon Berlin, September 5th, but was defeated at Dennewitzthe following day by Bernadotte. The French lost on the 6th and 7th 15,000 men killed, wounded, and captured, 80 guns, and 400 baggage waggons. In spite of these reverses Napoleon continued to maintain his position at Dresden till October, making occasional attacks in the direction either of Bohemia or Silesia. But his situation began to be highly critical. At Toplitz (September 9th) Austria and Prussia had arranged for the future of Germany, and Maximilian I. of Bavaria joined the allies October 1st, by the Treaty of Reid. By this treaty he agreed to give up Tyrol; but he was to be indemnified at the future pacification for what cessions he might be called upon to make and his sovereignty was assured to him. He was to keep 36,000 men in the field. The Bavarian general Wrede, reinforced with an Austrian corps of 20,000 men, now marched towards the Rhine. In the north, the allies had got into Napoleon's rear. Tschernitschev, Tettenborn, Platov and other generals made incursions as far as Cassel and Bremen, fell upon isolated French corps, and com­pelled the King of Westphalia to fly to Wetzlar. Towards the end of September, the three main armies of the allies began to concentrate themselves towards Leipsic, and it became necessary for Napoleon to evacuate Dresden.

Battle of Leipsic , 1813

On the 15th of October Napoleon had assembled the greater part of his army at Leipsic, fixing his headquarters at Reudnitz, a mile or two from the city. He had now determined to risk all on a grand battle. His army consisted of about 170,000 men; that of the allies, upwards of 300,000 strong, formed a sort of half-circle round him. From these enormous masses, the Germans have called the battle of Leipsic the Volherschlacht, or battle of the nations. The Emperors Alexander and Francis, and the King of Prussia, were present with their armies; of which Prince Schwartzenberg had the command in chief. Two or three distinct battles which took place October 16th, formed a prelude to the grand battle of the 18th. The French had, on the whole, the superiority in these affairs; but Blücher inflicted a severe defeat at Mockern on the corps of Marmont and Dombrowsky. On the evening of the 16th Napoleon despatched General Meerfeld to the Emperor of Austria, with proposals for a truce and separate negotiations, which however were not accepted. On the 17th both sides rested on their arms, but the combat was renewed on the following day. At an early period of the action Napoleon was deserted by the Saxon troops, as well as by those of Wurtemberg. Nevertheless, the French succeeded in maintaining themselves throughout the whole of the 18th against far superior numbers; but their losses had been so great that they were compelled to commence a retreat in the night. Napoleon, after giving the necessary commands for that purpose, set off for Erfurt. The confusion of the retreat was augmented by the carelessness of Berthier, who had neglected to throw bridges over the little river Elster. Of the two which existed one broke down ; and the whole army had, consequently, but a single route. On the morning of the 19th, Macdonald, Regnier, Poniatowski, and Lauriston kept the enemy at bay till the greater part of the French army had passed the bridge, when the French themselves destroyed it, thus sacrificing a few corps still left behind. Of these troops many perished in endeavouring to cross the Elster; Macdonald swam that river, Poniatowski was drowned in the attempt, Regnier and Lauriston were taken prisoners. The allies also suffered severely. They lost upwards of 45,000 men killed or wounded, including twenty-one general officers. The French loss is not accurately known; but 23,000 sick and wounded were found in the town of Leipsic alone; 15,000 were taken prisoners, 300 guns and 900 baggage waggons were captured. When the allies entered Leipsic the King of Saxony, who was in that town, expressed a wish to join them; but he was sent a prisoner to Berlin.

Battle of Hanau

The French army was saved from total destruction through Napoleon having taken the precaution to send forward Bertrand to occupy Weissenfels. It still counted 100,000 men, but in a state of disorganization. Napoleon remained two days at Erfurt, endeavouring in vain to rally his troops. The retreat was then resumed towards the Rhine, almost as disastrously as the retreat from Moscow, with the exception of the frost. Wrede, unmindful of the well-known maxim, attempted, with inferior forces, to arrest the French at Hanau, but was defeated with great loss, October 30th and 31st. The French reached and crossed the Rhine without further molestation. Schwarzenberg wished to pursue them over that river; but the allied Sovereigns adopted a policy of moderation. By their celebrated Declaration of Frankfurt, December 1st, they announced their wish to see France great, powerful, and happy, because she was one of the corner stones of the European system ; and they expressed their willingness that she should enjoy an extent of territory unknown under her kings. Proposals for a peace had been previously made to Napoleon through St. Aignan, who had been captured at Gotha, on the basis of the independence of Spain, Italy, Germany, and Holland: on the other hand, France was to retain possession of Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine. Napoleon had at first given an evasive answer to these proposals ; and when at last, on the 2nd of December, by the advice of Coulaincourt (Duke of  Vicenza), who had superseded Maret (Duke of Bassano), as Minister for Foreign Affairs, he announced his acceptance of them, and agreed to the opening of a Congress at Mannheim, the Allies had already adopted the resolution of prosecuting the war.

More than 100,000 French troops still remained in the fortresses of Germany and Poland. All these gradually surrendered, but mostly after a vigorous resistance. Gouvion St. Cyr, whom Napoleon left in Dresden with 35,000 men, capitulated November 11th, on condition of a free and unmolested retreat. The Allied Sovereigns, however, refused to ratify the capitulation, on the ground that the besieging general was not authorized to make it, and St. Cyr was allowed the option either to surrender as prisoner of war, or to return to Dresden and attempt the defence of that city. The latter alternative being impossible, St. Cyr was obliged to surrender. Stettin, Dantzic, Zamosc, Modlin, and Torgau surrendered before the end of the year. Some places held out till the spring of the following year, especially the citadels of Erfurt and Wurzburg ; whilst Davoust maintained himself in Ham­burg till after the Peace of Paris (May 30th).

Peace of Kiel, 1814

The fall of Napoleon's empire in Germany was the immediate consequence of his defeat. Holland, with the exception of a few places, was occupied by the divisions of Bülow and Winzingerode, assisted by English troops who had landed on the coast. The Dutch were anxious to throw off the yoke of their oppressors; the cry of Orange-boven (up with Orange) was everywhere raised, and on December 1st the son of the former Stadholder was proclaimed Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands, with the title of William I. Towards the end of October, Jerome Bonaparte abandoned his kingdom of Westphalia, and in November the Elector of Hesse returned to his capital. Hanover, Oldenburg, and Brunswick were occupied by their respective Sovereigns before the end of 1813. The Princes of the Confederation of the Ehine, with the exception of the captive King of Saxony, and one or two minor princes, deserted Napoleon, and entered into treaties with the Allies. The Danes, having been driven out of Holstein by Bernadotte, concluded an armistice December 18th, and, finally, the Peace of Kiel, January 14th, 1814, by which Frederick VI ceded Norway to Sweden; reserving, however, Greenland, the Faroe Isles, and Iceland, which were regarded as dependencies of Norway. Norway, which was anciently governed by its own kings, had remained united with Denmark ever since the death of Olaf V in 1387. Charles XIII, on his side, ceded to Denmark Swedish Pomerania and the Isle of Rugen. This treaty founded the present system of the North. Sweden withdrew entirely from her connection with Germany, and became a purely Scandinavian Power. The Norwegians, who detested the Swedes, made an attempt to assert their independence under the conduct of Prince Christian Frederick, cousin-german and heir of Frederick VI of Denmark. Christian Frederick was proclaimed King of Norway; but the movement was opposed by Great Britain and the Allied Powers, from considerations of policy rather than justice; and the Norwegians found themselves compelled to decree the union of Norway and Sweden in a Storting, or Diet, assembled at Christiana, November 4th, 1814.1 Frederick YI. also signed a peace with Great Britain at Kiel, January 14, 1814.2 All the Danish colonies, except Heligoland, which had been taken by the English, were restored. As by the treaty with Sweden, Denmark had consented to enter into the Coalition against Napoleon, Great Britain by this treaty agreed to pay a subsidy of £33,000 per month for a body of 10,000 troops which she was to furnish. Frederick VI subsequently concluded a peace with Russia and Prussia.

In Italy the war had also proved unfavourable to the French. Prince Eugene Beauharnais had returned into Italy in August, 1813, when some battles occurred in the Illyrian provinces between him and the Austrian general Hiller. Eugene was driven back over the Isonzo to the Adige; the Hlyrian and Dalmatian provinces were recovered by the Austrians; and as, by the defection of Bavaria from Napoleon, Tyrol was opened to the Austrian troops, Eugene was finally compelled to retire behind the Mincio. After the battle of Leipsic, the Allies entered into negotiations both with Eugene and the King of Naples. Murat, deeming Napoleon irretrievably ruined, had finally separated from his brother-in-law at Erfurt, October 24th, and returned to Naples. The Allies held out to him the prospect of extending his dominions to the Po, while Eugene was promised the Crown of Lombardy. The Viceroy, however, remained faith­ful to his stepfather, perhaps from mistrust that the Austrians would perform their promises, or the Italians endure his rule. Murat, on the other hand, swallowed the bait, and concluded a treaty with Austria, January 11th, 1814,1 by which he agreed to take part in the war against Napoleon. He also entered into a treaty with England, or rather with Lord Bentinck, who ruled absolutely in Sicily, but who had no powers to conclude this negotiation. Murat had proceeded to take possession of Bome and Florence, under pretence that he was still the ally of France; and it was not until February 15th, 1814, that he formally declared war against Napoleon.

In order to complete the picture of Napoleon's situation at the commencement of 1814, we must bring up to that date the affairs of the Spanish Peninsula. After his disastrous retreat from Moscow, Napoleon found himself compelled to withdraw some of his best troops from Spain; Marshal Soult was also recalled, and his place supplied by Jourdan. Wellington had employed himself in his winter-quarters at Ciudad Rodrigo, in putting his forces on a good footing, and preparing for a grand campaign. In the spring of 1813 he counted under his standards 80,000 men, more than half of whom were English. In May he assumed the offensive by marching on Salamanca, when the French retired on Vittoria. The decisive victory gained by Lord Wellington over Jourdan in the neighbourhood of that city, June 21st, may be said to have decided the fate of the Peninsula. As the direct road to France was held by the Spaniards, the routed army was compelled to retreat on Pamplona. Joseph Bonaparte, who was present at the battle, saved himself with difficulty, and retired into France, abandoning all further hope of the Spanish crown. In the imperials of his carriages which were captured, were found some of the finest pictures taken from the royal palaces of Spain. The failure of an expedition to Catalonia under the command of Sir John Murray, undertaken with the view of diverting Marshal Suchet from joining the French Army of the centre, prevented Wellington from deriving all the benefit which he might have expected from his victory. Before he could enter France it was necessary to reduce the important places of Pamplona and St. Sebastian. The former was blockaded by General Hill, the latter by General Graham, after the failure of an assault, July 26th, which cost 2,000 men. Towards the end of July, Soult, who had entered Spain with a reinforcement of 20,000 men, and superseded Jourdan in the com­mand of the French army, was compelled, after some bloody engagements, to re-enter France before the end of August. St. Sebastian surrendered September 9th, Pamplona, October 29th. The left wing of Wellington's army crossed the Bidasoa on the 7th. Soult had taken up a strong position on the Nivelle, which was attacked by Wellington, November 7th; on the 10th, St. Jean de Luz, the key of the position, was taken by storm, and Soult compelled to retire behind the Nive and the Adour. From this position, also, the French were driven after several days of hard fighting (December 8th-13th), and Soult then established a fortified camp at Bayonne. This town was invested by the Anglo-Portuguese army, and for some time hostilities seemed suspended. Thus, while the enemy threatened the Northern frontier of France, the South was actually invaded, and the despot, who a year or two before seemed to behold all Europe at his feet, began to tremble for his own dominions.

Napoleon perceived soon after his return to Paris that it would be impossible for him to hold Spain, and after a fruitless attempt to embroil Spain and England, he informed the Spanish Princes that they could return to their country without any conditions whatever. Ferdinand VII arrived at Madrid before the end of March, 1814. Pope Pius VII had also been dismissed from his captivity, January 23rd, and, on the 10th of March following, the States of the Church were restored.

The Emperor of the French had employed himself after his return to Paris in organizing the means of resistance. By an Imperial Decree of November 11th, he augmented several of the taxes in open violation of the fundamental laws of the Constitution. A Senatus-consulte of the 15th placed at his disposal 300,000 conscripts of 1803 and following years to 1814 inclusive. Of these, half were to be immediately called into activity, while the remainder were to form an army of reserve.

An Extraordinary Diet, assembled at Zurich, had proclaimed the neutrality of Switzerland, November 18th, 1813; cordon of troops was ordered to the frontiers, and deputies were sent both to the Allied Sovereigns and to Napoleon to engage them to respect Swiss neutrality. The French Em­peror readily consented, and ordered his troops to evacuate Switzerland. But the Allies resolved not to recognize a neutrality which would essentially interfere with their operations, and which would be respected by Napoleon only so long as it suited his convenience. The grand army of Bohemia under Prince Schwarzenberg was directed to penetrate through Switzerland into Alsace and Franche-Comte, and to march upon Paris, having first secured the important position of Langres. Another portion of it was to occupy the roads from Italy. The army of Silesia under Blucher was to pass the Rhine, above and below Mainz, and also to direct its march upon the capital, masking the fortresses on the road. Part of the army of the North under the Prince Royal of Sweden (Bernadotte) was also to act on the offensive in France; but a large part of it was employed to occupy Holland and Belgium. The Swedish army and the Duke of Bruns­wick's corps did not arrive in France till after the fall of Paris. Schwarzenberg established his headquarters at Langres, January 18th, where the three allied Monarchs arrived a few days later. The army of Silesia having, after some fighting, crossed the Rhine and Saar, advanced by the 25th of January to Metz and Nancy, and was in communication with the grand army of Prince Schwarzenberg. Napoleon, who was assembling his forces at Chalons-sur-Marne, seems not to have expected that the Allies would so speedily pass the Rhine. He left Paris to join his army, January 25th, 1814, after appointing his brother Joseph to the command of the National Guard.

The campaign which Napoleon now entered on is reckoned one of the ablest he ever conducted. He manoeuvred with wonderful skill between Schwarzenberg and Blücher, arresting first the one then the other. But the transient successes which he achieved were perhaps of more detriment than service to him, as they hindered him from entering sincerely into the negotiations which had been opened at Chatillon, February 5th, for a peace on the basis proposed at Frankfurt. To this Congress Great Britain had sent Lords Castlereagh, Cathcart, and Aberdeen. As the Allies had not yet determined on the restoration of the Bourbons, they consented to treat with Napoleon as the Sovereign of France, but of France reduced within her natural limits, and no longer menacing the peace and independence of the rest of Europe. It soon, however, became apparent that Napoleon's good faith could not be relied on. His demands always rose with his success; and at last, on the 15th of March, his Minister Coulaincourt handed in such an extravagant counter-project as determined the allies to break up the conference. He demanded the kingdom of Italy, including Venice, for Eugene Beauharnais and his successors; Nimeguen and the line of the Waal for a French frontier, thus including North Brabant and the Scheldt; also the left bank of the Rhine, and establishments for his brothers Joseph and Jerome, and his nephew Louis, who were to renounce the thrones of Spain and West­phalia, and the Grand Duchy of Berg. While the Allies were treating with Napoleon, they had drawn closer their bond of union by the Treaty of Chaumont, concluded March 1st, 1814.1 Each of the Allies engaged to keep 150,000 men constantly in the field; and Great Britain engaged, more­over, to furnish a subsidy of five millions sterling for the service of the current year, to be divided equally among the other three Powers. The alliance was to last for twenty years.

Battles of Montereau and Laon, 1814.

Napoleon attacked Blücher in his position at Brienne January 29th, but was totally defeated February 1st. This engagement is sometimes also called the battle of La Rothière. It was now resolved that the two armies of the allies should advance separately on Paris; that of Blücher along the Marne, that of Schwarzenberg along the Seine. But Napoleon, again turning upon Blücher, inflicted on him several defeats at Champaubert, Montmiral, Eloges, etc. (Feb. 10th-14th), and compelled him to fall back in order to join the advancing army of the North under Bülow. Napoleon then marched against the army of Schwarzenberg, which had advanced to Fontainebleau, and which he defeated at Montereau, February 18th. Schwarzenberg then retreated to Troyes and Bar-sur-Aube. The fate of Europe seemed again to hang on a mere thread; the Austrians even made proposals for an armistice, which, however, had no result. Bliicher having been joined by the Army of the North, ad­vanced and defeated Napoleon in an obstinate battle at Laon, which lasted March 9th and 10th. In consequence of this victory, the two allied armies again advanced. Napoleon, The decisive leaving Marmont and Mortier to observe Blücher, marched with about 40,000 men against the grand army, which he attacked at Arcis-sur-Aube, March 20th, 21st. His failure proved decisive to his fortunes. He shortly after formed the resolution of marching on St. Dizier, in the rear of the Allies, threatening the line of communication of the grand army, collecting the garrisons, making a levy en masse in Alsace and Lorraine, and saving Paris by carrying the war into Ger­many. The Allies, having discovered his plan from an intercepted letter, determined not to follow him, but to advance on Paris by forced marches; at the same time despatching Winzingerode with 8,000 men after Napoleon, to induce him to believe that he was followed by the whole army. Blücher now formed a junction with Schwarzenberg, after defeating Marmont and Mortier at La Fere Champenoise, March 25th. On the 29th the Allies had reached Clichy and Villepinte while Marmont and Mortier had retired on Paris after their defeat, and occupied the heights of Montmartre and Belleville. The Regent, Maria Louisa and her son, the King of Rome, now left Paris for Blois, agreeably to the directions of Napoleon two months before; while Joseph Bonaparte called out the National Guard, and prepared to defend the capital. On the 30th an obstinate conflict took place on the heights of Montmartre, Belleville, and Romainville, which was terminated by Marmont proposing an armistice; not, however, before Montmartre had been carried by Blücher. On the following day, March 31st, at two o'clock in the morning was signed the Capitulation of Paris. Marmont and Mortier, with their troops, were to leave the city; the arsenals, magazines, etc., were to be left in the state in which they were; the National Guard was to be retained or dismissed, according to the decision of the Allies, to whose magnanimity Paris was recommended.

At eleven o'clock the Emperor of Russia and King of Prussia entered Paris at the head of 36,000 men, amidst the acclamations of the people. Many cries arose for the Bourbons, and the proscribed white cockade was everywhere displayed. In the afternoon a proclamation was published, signed by the Emperor Alexander, in which the Allied Sovereigns announced that they would no longer treat with Napoleon Bonaparte, or any of his family; that they would respect the integrity of France as it had existed under its ancient Kings; that they would recognize and guarantee any constitution that the French nation might establish; and, consequently, they invited the Senate to appoint a Provisional Government to prepare such a constitution, and to conduct the administration. On the following day, April 1st, the Senate, which during ten years had worshipped Napoleon as their idol, pronounced his deposition and that of his family. But it went no further. The Council General of the Department of the Seine took the initiative in proclaiming the restoration of the Bourbons in the person of Louis XVIII.

Meanwhile, Napoleon, who, imagining himself pursued by the allied army, had retired as far as Doulevant in the Haute Marne, returned suddenly upon St. Dizier, and defeated Winzingerode's advanced guard. On the following day, the 27th, he invested Vitry. Here he learned the march of the Allies on Paris, and was taken by surprise. Instead of advancing on the capital, he retired through St. Dizier and Vassy, and again reached Doulevant March 28th, where he had been five days before. On the 29th of March Napoleon was informed that Lyons had surrendered to the Allies, who had penetrated through Switzerland. He now advanced upon Troyes; whence, in contradiction to his former orders, he sent directions that Paris should be defended to the last extremity. He then proceeded by way of Sens to Fontainebleau, and endeavoured to open negotiations with Prince Schwarzenberg, by whom they were rejected. He had still a considerable army at Fontainebleau; but on the 4th of April he was deserted by Marmont and his corps, who submitted to the authority of the Provisional Government. It was not, how­ever, till the 10th of April that Napoleon signed an unconditional resignation of the Crowns of France and Italy, both for himself and his heirs, after the Emperor Alexander and the French Provisional Government had assured to him a pension of 2,000,000 francs and an asylum in the Isle of Elba; of which he was to have the sovereignty, and to retain the title of Emperor. A formal Convention to this effect was signed April 11th.

Further resistance would indeed have been insane. Not Defeat of only were Paris and the northern and eastern provinces of France in possession of the Allies, but Wellington also was advancing in the south, and was everywhere received by the people as a deliverer. Wellington during the winter season had remained inactive before Bayonne till the middle of February, when he resumed the offensive, and after a few days' fighting drove the French from their position at that place. Soult retired to Orthez, where he was defeated, Feb­ruary 27th. Bayonne, St. Jean Pied de Port, Navarreins, were successively invested by the English. Soult, retreating by way of Tarbes, had concentrated his army at Toulouse. An English division, under Beresford, advanced to the Garonne, and entered Bordeaux March 12th, accompanied by the Duke d'Angouleme, nephew of Louis XVI., who had joined the English army some weeks before. Bordeaux now declared for the Bourbons and proclaimed Louis XVIII., although the Congress at Chatillon was still treating with Napoleon as Sovereign of France. Soult was attacked at Toulouse by Wellington, April 10th, and after an obstinate defence, which caused the assailants great loss, was compelled on the 12th to abandon his position. Neither the French nor the English general appears to have been aware that Napoleon had abdi­cated. After the defeat of Soult, the inhabitants of Toulouse immediately hoisted the Bourbon colours. So late as the night of April 14th, the garrison of Bayonne made a sortie which cost many lives on both sides ; and it was not till the 18th that an armistice was signed between Wellington and Soult.

Napoleon lingered more than a week at Fontainebleau, as ^ceedTt if loth to quit the scene of his former glory.2 At last, on the Elba66 3 20th of April, after taking an affecting, though somewhat theatrical, leave of his Guard, so long the companions of his varying fortunes, he set off for Frejus, and embarking on board a British frigate, landed at Porto Ferrajo, in Elba, May 4th. At his own request, a commissary of each of the five great Powers accompanied him on his journey. The populations of

Martens, N. Bee. t. i. p. 696.

He is said to have taken a dose of poison, which, however, failed of its intended eflect.

the French towns through which he passed displayed the greatest hatred towards him, and even threatened his life; whilst he, on his part, showed the most abject fear, some­times bursting into tears, and, to conceal himself, frequently changing his garments for those of his conductors. [VII] [382] His brother Joseph had fled into Switzerland. His Empress, Maria Louisa, after a short stay at Rambouillet, proceeded to Yienna, and again became an Austrian Princess. The Count d'Artois, brother of Louis XYIII., who had returned to Paris with the title and authority of Lieutenant-General of the Kingdom, signed with the Allies a Convention, April 23rd, [VIII] [383]with the view of affording France the benefits of peace before a regular treaty could be prepared. The Allies agreed to evacuate the French territory, according to the ancient limits of it on January 1st, 1792. Thus vanished with the stroke of a pen the fruits of twenty years of bloodshed and conquest! France also surrendered by this treaty about fifty fortresses which she continued to occupy in Germany, Holland, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, etc. Restoration Louis XYIII., who had resided several years at Hartwell, xviiiiS in Buckinghamshire, entered Paris May 3rd. [IX] [384] In this cere­mony the chief object of attraction was the Duchess of Angouleme, daughter of Louis XYI. and Marie Antoinette, who sat in the same carriage with her uncle. Louis XYIII. had published the day before at St. Ouen a declaration an­nouncing his resolution to adopt a liberal constitution, though he rejected one proposed by the Senate, April 6th. The principal features of the new constitution were to be: a re­presentative government, divided into two chambers; taxation by consent of the deputies; public and individual liberty; freedom of the press and of worship; inviolability of property; sales of national property not to be questioned; responsible ministers ; irremovable judges ; guarantee of the public debt; maintenance of the Legion of Honour; admissibility of every Frenchman to all employments; no individual to be molested regarding his opinions and his votes. This proclamation is said to have been exacted from Louis by the Emperor of Russia. Louis wished to reseat himself unpledged and as an

absolute Sovereign on the throne of his ancestors, as if all that had happened since 1789 had been a mere dream ; but Alex­ander, who is said to have corrected the proclamation with his own hand, threatened that Louis should not be admitted into his capital till he had signed it. Talleyrand, who was chiefly instrumental in bridging over the chasm between the abdica­tion of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbons, and who with the versatility which characterized him became again Minister for Foreign Affairs under the new Govern­ment, is said purposely to have delayed the conclusion of a treaty of peace till the project of the new constitution should have been arranged. Fearing that Louis, after the departure of the Emperor Alexander, might be inclined to neglect his engagements, a commission for drawing up a constitution was appointed May 18th, and on the 30th of the same month was signed the Peace of Paris. A separate treaty was concluded The first ■with each of the four Allied Powers, but all of the same pS^isi tenour, except an additional article reserved by each Power.1 The Allies must be allowed to have displayed in this treaty great forbearance and moderation, when it is considered what terrible losses and humiliations Napoleon had inflicted on three of their number. France was not only suffered to retain the limits of 1792, but some additions were even made to them by annexing certain districts of the Ardennes, the Moselle, the Lower Rhine, the Ain, as well as part of Savoy, and by confirming her possession of Avignon, the Yenaissin and other places, comprising in the whole 150 square miles, with a population of near half a million souls. Holland was to be placed under the sovereignty of the House of Orange, and to receive an accession of territory. The States of Ger­many were to be independent, and united by a confederation ; the revival of the German Empire being thus tacitly negatived. The independence of Switzerland was recognized. Italy, ex­cept the portion to be restored to Austria, was to be composed of Sovereign States. Great Britain was to possess Malta and its dependencies; while, on the other hand, she engaged to restore to France all the colonies possessed by that country on the 1st of January, 1792, except Tobago, St. Lucia, and the Isle of France; also that part of St. Domingo which had originally belonged to Spain, and which was now to be re- stored to that country. Sweden also was to cede back Guadalupe to France, and Portugal, French Guiana. The 32nd Article of the treaty provided for the assembly of a General Congress at Vienna within two months, to regulate the arrangements which were to complete the present treaty.

Subsidiary The Peace of Paris was followed by some subsidiary treaties.

Treaties. Ferainana VII. acceded to the peace July 20th. By a Con­vention of June 3rd, between Austria and Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph restored to Austria Tyrol with the Vorarlberg, the Principality of Salzburg, the district of the Inn and the Hausriick. During the visit of the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia to London in June, it was agreed that the Article of the Peace of Paris, stipulating the aggrandizement of Holland, should be carried out by the annexation of Belgium to that country, an arrangement which was accepted by the Sovereign of the Netherlands, July 21st, 1814. [X] [385] Great Britain, by a treaty concluded at London, August 13th, 1814,2 restored to that Sovereign all the colonies of which Holland had been in possession on January 1st, 1803, except the Cape of Good Hope, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice. Part of these were intended to compensate Sweden for relinquishing Guadalupe; but the Swedish Government preferring a payment in money, Great Britain purchased their claims for a million sterling. Great Britain also paid to the Sovereign of the Netherlands, in consideration of his colonies, a further sum of two millions sterling to be employed in restoring the Belgian fortresses. These had been dismantled by the Emperor Joseph II., and the country consequently left without defence.

Italian     It remains to mention the affairs of Italy. Napoleon, on

affairs. the news of Murat's defection, had directed Eugene Beau- harnais to evacuate that country; an order with which the Viceroy neglected to comply, partly because he could not ob­tain honourable terms for the different garrisons, partly be­cause he hoped that the Lombards would elect him for their King. On February 8th he delivered battle to Bellegarde at Valleggio, on the Mincio, which, though he gained the ad­vantage, led to no results. Murat soon discovered how vain were his hopes of obtaining Italy as the reward of his defec­tion. The Emperor Francis postponed the ratification of the treaty; Lord Bentinck received no power to conclude. General

Nugent, who, with an Austrian corps, had been placed under Murat's command, took possession of Modena, not in the name of the King of Naples, but of the House of Este. Murat re­ceived, indeed, the ratified treaty from Vienna, March 8th, but considerably altered to his disadvantage, the only addition to his dominions being a small portion of the States of the Church; while Lord Bentinck, after the landing of a body of Anglo- Sicilian troops at Leghorn, openly gave out that they were designed to support the rights of the Bourbons to Naples. But as the Emperor of Russia seemed disposed to offer Murat his alliance, it was agreed that Lord Bentinck should evacuate Tuscany and march upon Genoa. With the aid of an English fleet, under Admiral Pellew, that city was reduced to capitu­late, April 18th, and two days after the French garrison marched out with its arms and baggage, and took the road to Savona. On the 26th Lord Bentinck, without the sanction of his Government, published a proclamation re-establishing the Genoese Constitution such as it existed in 1797, with such modifications as public opinion might require. Pope Pius VH., who had been disarmed by Napoleon, entered Rome in a sort of triumph, May 24th, and Murat found himself compelled to acquiesce in the restoration of the Papal authority in the Roman States. Soon afterwards he was obliged to relinquish Tuscany to Ferdinand III.

After the abdication of Napoleon, Eugene Beauharnais was convention also compelled to lay down his arms. On April 16th he of Mantua, signed an armistice with Bellegarde at Schiarino-Rizzino, near Mantua, and the French troops in Lombardy marched homewards. Eugene, supported by a majority of the Senate, still hoped to be elected King of Italy, and to persuade the allied Powers to recognize him in that capacity. But a strong Austrian party existed in Milan, which, taking advantage of the popular hatred of the French, excited an insurrection against the senators of Eugene's party, who were driven from the city, April 20th. By the Convention of Mantua, April 23rd, [XI] [386] Eugene agreed to evacuate all the fortresses of the Kingdom of Italy. General Bellegarde entered Milan April 28th, occupied the other Lombard cities, and proclaimed, May 23rd, that he took possession of the Kingdom of Italy in the name of his Sovereign Francis. Eugene now betook

himself to his fatber-in-law, the King of Bavaria. The fate of Piedmont was determined at the same time. A proclama­tion of Prince Schwarzenberg, dated at Paris, April 25th, announced to the Piedmontese that Austrian troops would take possession of the country in the name of the Eang of Sardinia; and on the 27th the plenipotentiaries of Prince Camille Borghese, governor-general of the departments beyond the Alps, signed at Turin a Convention1 for an armistice, and for the evacuation of those departments by the French troops. Louis       After a quarter of a century disturbed by revolution and

grants'a war' France and Europe seemed to be returning to peace and Charter. order. On June 8th, 1814, Louis XVIII. gave a Charter to the French nation. The Charter was signed by Louis as given "in the 19th year of his reign," thus ignoring the Republic, the Consulate, and the Empire. Its main features were that the Legislature should consist of a Chamber of Peers and a Chamber of Deputies ; the peers to be nominated by the crown, the deputies to be chosen by the people. The qualifications for a deputy were, to have completed forty years of age, and to pay annually 1,000 francs in direct taxes. The qualifications for an elector were to have completed thirty years of age, and to contribute annually to the direct taxation 300 francs. The King only was to have the right of pro­posing laws. The Chambers, however, were entitled to sug­gest them ; but if such suggestions were disregarded, they could not be renewed during the same session. All forms of Christian worship were to be tolerated, but Roman Catholi­cism remained the religion of the State. The Con- In order to settle the general affairs of Europe, it had been Vienna^ determined to assemble a Congress at Vienna, which was 1814-15.' formally opened November 1st. Nothing, not even the Crusades, had ever displayed the unity of Europe in so forcible a light as this Congress. The Peace of Westphalia offers the nearest parallel, but one far inferior in the number and greatness of the Powers concerned, the importance of the interests at stake, and the extent of the settlement effected. Of the great Powers, some were represented by their Sovereigns in person, others by their most eminent statesmen, while no Christian State of any importance was without its repre­sentative. The Emperors of Austria and Russia, the Kings of

Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg, the Elector of Hesse, the Grand Duke of Baden, the Dukes of Saxe-Weimar, Brunswick, Coburg, and many other German Princes, were personally present. The other European States were repre­sented by their Ambassadors and Ministers, among whom we may mention Lord Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington, for England; Prince Talleyrand and the Duke of Dalberg, for France ; Don Labrador, for Spain ; Count Palmella and Don Lobo de Silveyra, for Portugal; Cardinal Gonsalvi,for the Pope. [12] [387]

The wars of Napoleon had disturbed the whole European Distnbu- system, and the problem before the Congress was to re- territory, arrange its scattered members. It is needless to say that in an Assembly composed of representatives of those nations which had suffered from Napoleon's aggressions, but little regard was had to the claims of nationalities, ancient rights, historical traditions, moral fitness, or conformity of religion. Thus, for instance, the Republics of Venice and Genoa, with­out any alleged delinquencies, were abolished, and handed over to foreign and hostile masters ; Venice to Austria, Genoa to Sardinia, in spite of the traditional hatred between the Ligurians and the Piedmontese, and the deprecations of the Genoese. In like manner, Catholic Belgium was annexed to Calvinistic Holland, the Catholic Electorates of the Rhine to Reformed Prussia, and Catholic Poland to Greek Russia. Such arrangements were necessarily sources of weakness, dis­content, and sedition, and, where possible, of revolution.

Austria, which had previously held only the isolated Milanese, now seized all Lombardy and the Venetian territories, except the Ionian Isles, which were erected into a Republic under the protection of Great Britain. Thus Austria secured several entrances into Italy, and by occupying Ferrara and Comacchio, got a footing south of the Po. But she was pre­paring future troubles for herself, by extending her dominion

over an unsympathetic people, which, under French rule, had imbibed ideas repugnant to her system. She extended her influence in Central Italy through members of the reigning family. Tuscany and Modena were assigned to collateral branches of the House of Austria, the first to the Archduke Ferdinand, the second to the Archduke Francis d'Este, also a Prince of the House of Hapsburg-Lorraine. Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were given to Napoleon's consort, Maria Louisa, who retained the title of "Empress." Lucca, erected into a duchy, was assigned to the ex-Queen of Etruria. With regard to the rest of Italy, the Pope recovered all his possessions except Benevento, Ponte Corvo, and the Yenaissin. But he refused to sign the Treaty of Yienna, on account of the Austrian garrisons in Ferrara and Comacchio. The lung of Sardinia, Victor Emanuel, retained Piedmont and Savoy, with the addition of Genoa, the English Govern­ment having ignored Lord Bentinck's proclamation. Joachim Murat, agreeably to treaties, was left for the present in possession of Naples, though somewhat curtailed. Germany, which from its geographical position and the genius of its people, must ever form one of the most important elements in the European system, became completely changed from its condition in the former century. The Holy Roman Empire had vanished, and with it the Golden Bull, the Electoral Capitulations, and the Electors themselves; though the Sovereign of Hesse retained that empty title. There was no longer a common tribunal, and the constitution of the Diet Re-settle- was entirely altered. The re-establishment of the German Germany. Empire was discussed. Several of the German princes and cities were for its revival; but the scheme was not approved by the Allies, nor by the Emperor of Austria. A Federative Constitution was established for Germany, with a Diet to be held at Frankfurt, of which the Austrian Emperor was to be President. The greater and smaller German States, to the number of thirty-eight, including the four still remaining free towns of Frankfurt, Bremen, Liibeck and Hamburg, and the Kings of Denmark and the Netherlands, the former by virtue of his Duchy of Holstein, the latter for Luxembourg, were to be members of the Confederation. This new Con­stitution had all the defects of the Empire without the prestige of its traditions, and especially it had the same want of centralization.

The Kingdom of Westphalia had fallen of itself, and the former Sovereigns who claimed its various parts had recovered their possessions. At this Congress the King of England assumed the title of " King," instead of " Elector " of Hanover. Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxe-Weimar, as well as Luxem­bourg annexed to the Netherlands, were made Grand Duchies. With the view of coercing France on the north, Belgium and the Dutch provinces were erected into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, in favour of the Prince of Orange with the title of William I.; though warning voices already proclaimed the danger of uniting countries so different in language, customs, and religion. Bavaria received for her restorations to Austria her former Palatine possessions, with Wiirzburg, Aschaffen- burg, and what is called Rhenish Bavaria. The restoration The ques- of the Prussian Kingdom occasioned long and violent debates, p^nd ar principally from the circumstance of the erection of the Saxony. Duchy of Warsaw and the Emperor of Russia's promise to restore the Kingdom of Poland in favour of the Grand Duke Constantine, his brother. The Duchy of Warsaw, about half as big again as Ireland, and containing nearly five million inhabitants, was for Russia one of the greatest acquisitions from the war. Russia thus thrust herself into the middle of Europe. Prussia demanded, in compensation, the whole of Saxony, and was supported by Russia; while she was opposed by Austria, France, and England. A new European war seemed on the point of breaking out, which was averted by concessions on both sides. The Emperor Alexander aban­doned his project of a Polish kingdom, gave the Duchy of Posen to Prussia, and to Austria the salt works of Wieliczka and the Part of Galicia which she had lost in the last war. The city of Cracow, with a territory of 19 J square geographical miles, was recognized as an independent republic. Besides the Duchy of Posen, Prussia was further compensated with about a third part of Saxony and the Rhenish provinces. These pro­vinces, as well as the Austrian possessions in Alta Italia, served further to coerce France. These acquisitions made Prussia twice as great as she was under Frederick II., and rendered her, together with Protestantism, predominant in Germany. Austria and Bavaria were now the only Catholic states; for though the reigning house of Saxony was Catholic, its subjects were Protestant. Yet on the whole, the German Catholics were somewhat superior in numbers.

England, which wanted no Continental aggrandizement, was chiefly the gainer by the possession of posts which assured her maritime ascendency, as Malta, Heligoland, and the Cape. Sweden obtained Norway, and by way of compensation, Denmark received Swedish Pomerania, which she ceded to Prussia in exchange for Lauenburg. Switzerland was declared neutral. With Spain, which had regained its king, and Portugal, nothing was done. The same was the case with Turkey, not being a Christian Power, and having done, or suffered, nothing in the war. On the whole, Russia was the greatest gainer by this new adjustment of European bound­aries ; as, besides the Duchy of Warsaw, she obtained Finland in the north, and Bessarabia and part of Moldavia in the south. At the same time, by a treaty with Persia, she had gained several eastern provinces; and thus she now became one of the most formidable Powers in Europe.

Napoleon While the Congress was thus restoring Europe to order, an

France event occurred which threatened to upset all their labours and to replunge the Continent into confusion. Napoleon, escaping from Elba with 900 of his veterans, landed near Cannes, March 1st, 1815. The news of this event fell like a thunder­bolt among the statesmen assembled at Vienna. It had the effect of silencing all minor disputes and uniting the four Powers against the common enemy. On March 13th they published a declaration of outlawry against him; and soon after they renewed the alliance of Chaumont, by a fresh treaty, signed at Vienna March 25th.1 By Article 8 Louis XVIII. was to be invited to accede to it. But as before the ratifica­tion of it, April 25th, Napoleon seemed to have firmly reseated himself upon the throne, the British Government handed in a declaration purporting that Article 8 was not to be taken as obliging the King of England to prosecute the war for the sake of imposing any particular government upon France; and the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian ministers acceded to this declaration.2 Great Britain concluded an additional Convention, April 30th,3 agreeing to furnish a subsidy of five millions, to be equally divided between Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Most of the European States successively acceded to the alliance. The amount of the contingents

which they engaged to provide considerably exceeded a million men.

Meanwhile, as Napoleon marched towards Paris he was He enters everywhere joined by the soldiery. At Lyons, where he Pans" arrived March 12th, he published several decrees, by one of which he proclaimed a general amnesty, excepting however thirteen persons. Among these were Talleyrand, Marmont, the Duke d'Alberg, and Bourrienne, his former secretary. By another decree he promised to convoke a Champ de Mai, or assembly of the people, to settle the constitution on the most liberal basis ; and to inspire the French with the belief that his restoration was concerted with Austria, it was added that the Empress and her son were to return to Paris, to be crowned in the presence of this Assembly. Marshal Ney, who less than a year before had been one of the first to welcome Louis XVIII. at Compiegne on his return to France, volun­teered his services to march against and capture Napoleon; but a few words from his old commander turned his heart, and he joined at Auxerre Napoleon's standards. This act of Ney's caused the royalists to abandon all reliance on the army, Napoleon reached Paris in twenty forced marches, without shedding a drop of blood. The battalions despatched against him served only to augment his escort. Louis XVIII. found himself compelled to fly from Paris, March 20th. He had declared in the Chamber his fidelity to the Charter, and the ministry had made magnificent promises ; but it was now too late. On the evening of the same day Napoleon entered Paris, and was again installed at the Tuileries amid the exulting congratulations of his former followers and admirers. By the bulk of the citizens, however, he was not so well re­ceived. They feared his warlike projects, though he abounded in promises, and declared that he had renounced all thoughts of extending his empire. But he re-established all the theatrical magnificence of his Court. Louis proceeded to Lille and after­wards to Ghent, where he remained during the whole of what is called the Hundred Days, the term of Napoleon's second empire. The Duke of Bourbon failed in an attempt to excite an insurrection in La Vendee. He even fell into the power of the ex-Emperor, who had murdered his son ; but Napoleon recoiled from a second political crime of that description, and gave orders that the Duke should be furnished with a pass­port for England. The Duchess of Angouleme, relying on

the loyalty displayed by the city of Bordeaux, in the previous year, also made a spirited attempt to maintain the Bourbon cause in the south of France; but the population of Bour- deaux declined to second her on this occasion, and the Princess also found herself compelled to seek a refuge in England.

Napoleon's ministers.

Napoleon, though his enterprise had been crowned with such sudden and complete success, found himself in a situation of no ordinary difficulty. The treasury was empty, the army weak and disorganized, the patriot party, if by such a term we may designate the opponents of the Bourbons, mistrustful and exacting. Napoleon named as his ministers, Cambacérès for the department of Justice, Carnot for the Interior, Fouche for the Police, Coulaincourt (Duke of Vicenza) for Foreign Affairs. Fouche had announced to the Bourbons his intended defection, but said that it was only with a view to ruin Na­poleon. On April 22nd Napoleon promulgated what he called " an additional Act" to the constitutions of the Empire. It was a good deal modelled on the Charter of Louis XYIII., but far outstripped it in the liberality of its concessions.

The Champ de Mai. Failure of Murat in Italy.

It was, however, on the fortune of war that his hold of power must depend. If he could maintain himself against the attacks of the Allies, there was little danger of his being hurled from the throne by his French subjects. The Champ de Mai, held June 1st, was celebrated with enthusiasm, and served to rally the people in Napoleon's cause. His dis­posable army at this time numbered 200,000 men, besides the troops in garrison and a reserve of 150,000 recruits. In accordance with his usual tactics he resolved to take the offensive and to strike a blow before the Allies should be fully prepared. Hostilities had been already resumed in Italy. No sooner did Murat hear of the enthusiasm with which Napoleon had been received in France than he entered the Papal States with two armies, and marched to encounter the Austrians in Northern Italy. He still harboured the dream of being King of all Italy, and called upon the Italians to drive out the foreigners and found a united kingdom. He occupied Tus­cany, Bologna, and Modena, and arrived upon the banks of the Po without having experienced any serious resistance. But on May 3rd he was attacked by the Austrians, under Bianchi, at Tolentino, and after a combat of two days was completely defeated. The Austrians now pressed on to Naples.

Before Murat could arrive there his wife had concluded a Convention with Commodore Campbell, the commander of the English fleet, by which the safety of Naples was secured, but on condition of the surrender of all the Neapolitan ships of war. By the Convention of Casa Lanzi between the Austrian Generals and the English Minister on one part, and the Com­mander-in-Chief of the Neapolitan army on the other, May 20th, the Kingdom of Naples, with all its ports, fortresses, and arsenals, was to be delivered up to the Allies, in order to be restored to King Ferdinand IV; agreeably to a treaty between that Sovereign and the Emperor of Austria, concluded at Vienna, April 29th. Murat fled to the Isle of Ischia and subsequently to France; but Napoleon forbade him to appear at Paris. His wife obtained permission to reside in the Austrian dominions. Ferdinand IV after ten years' residence in Sicily, returned to Naples, June 17th.

According to the plan of campaign agreed upon by the Allies, the English and Prussians were to enter France from the Netherlands, whilst the Austrians were to invade it from the Rhine. The English and Prussian armies, under Wellington and Blucher, comprising 220,000 men, already stood upon the Belgian frontiers; and Napoleon determined to attack them before the Austrians could come up. All the troops he could spare for that purpose were 130,000 men, while to oppose the Austrians he could despatch only 30,000 men. Napoleon left Paris for Belgium, June 12th. At this time the Russian army, which equalled in number those of Wellington and Bliicher, was only about eight days' march from the scene of action. Wellington's army, composed of English, Hanoverians, Brunswickers and Notherlanders, ex- tended from the sea to the Dyle. Blucher's army, divided into four corps of from 25,000 to 30,000 men, stretched along the Meuse, from the Dyle to the frontiers of Luxembourg. Napoleon resorted to his old strategy of attacking one army after the other, and endeavouring to separate Wellington and Blucher. On June 15th the French crossed the Sambre, defeated Ziethen, took Charleroi, and compelled the advanced guard of the Prussians to retire to Ligny and St. Amand. Blucher now ordered his second corps to advance to Sombreuf, five or six miles north of Fleurus; while Wellington, on hearing what had occurred, ordered his troops to advance on the following morning (16th) to Nivelles and Quatre Bras. He had arranged to send 20,000 men to the aid of Blucher, but being himself attacked by Marshal Ney at Quatre Bras, he was unable to perform this promise, though he succeeded in re- pulsing Ney and in maintaining his position. In this action the Duke of Brunswick was slain. Bliicher, attacked by Napoleon in person with superior forces at Ligny, was defeated with great loss, and compelled to retreat to Wavre, in order to put himself in communication with his fourth corps under Bulow, which had not come up on the 16th. Wellington, hearing of this retrograde movement on the morning of the 17th, also retired through Gemappes to Waterloo, in order to maintain his communication with the Prussians. Napoleon despatched Grouchy with between 30,000 and 40,000 men to attack the Prussians at Wavre, with orders, after defeating them, to turn against Wellington's army. Napoleon himself attacked Wellington on the 18th. The British army was posted on the heights of Mont St. Jean, with the strong positions in front of Hougomont and La Haye Sainte. The French, after a desperate struggle, succeeded in carrying the latter position; and also in making a lodgment in Hougomont, after that post had been two or three times lost and won. But an attack executed by the guard and the élite of the French army on the British lines towards the close of the day was repulsed, and the French thrown into utter confusion. Grouchy, engaging at Wavre, a Prussian corps, which he mistook for their whole army, was too long detained to make his appearance on the 18th. But Bulow's Prussian corps came up towards the close of the day, and beginning to operate on the right flank of the French, completed their defeat. Blucher appeared soon after with the main body of the Prussians, and he and Wellington, meeting at La Belle Alliance, which had been the centre of the French position, saluted each other as victors.

The retreat of the French soon became a perfect rout. They are said to have lost 60,000 men during the three days' struggle in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Their pursuit was abandoned to the Prussians, who were comparatively fresh. Napoleon, re- linquishing to Soult the command of the defeated army, hastened back to Paris, where he arrived June 21st. His carriage filled with gold and precious stones, his Imperial mantle, and his portfolio, formed part of the booty of the victors. The Chamber of Deputies had displayed symptoms of resistance to Napoleon's despotism ; who, at the instigation of his brother Lucien and other partisans, determined to dissolve it, and assume a dictatorial authority. But Lafayette, now a member of the Chamber, who during the last quarter of a century had taken no part in public affairs, having gotten intelligence of this scheme, proposed and carried a resolution that the Chamber should declare itself in permanence, and that every attempt to dissolve it should be considered an act of high treason. Yet, with his usual inconstancy, he immediately afterwards assisted Fouché to shut it up! Lucien Bonaparte and some of the Ministers made an unsuccessful attempt to induce the deputies to invest Napoleon with a temporary dictatorship; Lafayette and the majority insisted on his immediate abdication. Napoleon was not in a situation to resist. On the 22nd of June he gave in his abdication, but at the same time proclaimed his son Emperor of the French, with the title of Napoleon II. His abdication was received, the reservation in favour of his son ignored, and a Provisional Executive Commission was appointed by the Chamber. Fouché (Duke of Otranto), the executioner of the Lyonese, was elected president of the Commission. That intriguer, in sending Lafayette to the Allies, directed him to treat in favour of any body but the Bourbons, and at the same moment wrote to Louis XVIII, and did all he could for his restoration. While still at the head of the Provisional Government, Fouché, who had been one of the judges of Louis XVI, became the minister of police of his successor. Talleyrand introduced him to the King at St. Denis. Chateaubriand remarked that it was Vice supported by Crime. These two men alone were thought to understand the conjuncture. Napoleon lingered in Paris till June 29th in the hope of some favourable occurrence, when, as the Allies were within sight of the capital, he took his departure for Malmaison. The Provisional Commission despatched Sebastiani, Laforet, Lafayette, Pontecoulant, Benjamin Constant, and d'Argenson to the Allied Sovereigns at Heidelberg, to treat on the basis of the national independence and the inviolability of the French soil; but the Sovereigns replied, that no negotiations could be entered into till Bonaparte should be replaced in the custody of the Allies, and thus disabled from again disturbing the repose of Europe. Wellington and Blucher also refused an armistice proposed by Davoust.

The remains of the routed army, as well as Grouchy's corps, had found their way to Paris; and at the beginning of July, 90,000 troops of the line and 12,000 federals, the whole under the command of Davoust, were preparing to defend the capital. But their resistance against the overwhelming masses of the Allies would have been unavailing, and, to save Paris from the horrors of a siege, Davoust signed, with Wellington and Blcuer, a military convention, or capitulation, at St. Cloud, July 3rd; by which the French army was to evacuate Paris within three days, and to retire beyond the Loire. On the 6th the Allies entered the capital. The Prussians displayed great animosity against the French. The English commander had much difficulty in restraining Bliicher from blowing up the bridge of Jena, a monument of Prussian disgrace. Louis XVIII re-entered Paris, July 8th, and thus put an end to the interregnum of the Hundred Days. Napoleon, after staying some time in the Isle of Aix, with the design of taking a passage to America, but dreading the risks of the voyage, and preferring to throw himself on the generosity of the English to running the risk of being captured by them, delivered himself up, on the 15th of July, to Captain Maitland, commander of the Bellerophon, an English ship of the line which happened to be stationed off Rochefort. Captain Maitland gave him no promises, except to convey him in safety to England. Napoleon had, on the previous day, written an inflated letter to the Prince Regent, invoking the hospitality of the British nation, and comparing himself to Themistocles when he sought an asylum from Admetus. The fallen Emperor was conveyed to Plymouth, but was not allowed to land. On the 7th of August he was transferred to the Northumberland, the flagship of Admiral Sir G. Cockburn, to be conveyed, agreeably to the decision of the Allies, to the Island of St. Helena. In that remote spot, where not even hope could solace him with the prospect of a change of fortune, he lingered out the remainder of his extraordinary and checkered career, till disease terminated at once his life and his repining, May 5th, 1821.

Thus the curtain drops on the first acts of the great French revolutionary drama—the Republic, the Consulate, and the Empire. Perhaps no other nation has experienced political and social changes so violent and rapid as those which took place in France between 1789 and 1815. At the former period absolute royalty, feudal customs and abuses, stately and aristocratic manners, the development of centuries, are still in full vigour. Suddenly the scene shifts. The king, the personification of the State, vanishes before the apparition of the State itself—the French nation. Another shift, and the nation itself gives place to a Parisian mob, directed by bloodthirsty demagogues. Democratic tyranny, supported by blood and terror, falls in turn through disgust at its excesses, and the anarchy it has produced is succeeded by a military despotism. A Corsican adventurer of great military and administrative talent, collects the scattered forces of France to hurl them at Europe, gleams for a brief time like a meteor, threatening the nations with change, then suddenly collapses.

The same violent changes are observed in the lives of the leading characters who appear upon the stage. Assassins of the republic, like Fouché,—renegade churchmen, like Talleyrand,— become Ministers of State under every sudden change of Government. In the course of a few months, marshals and senators fight for and support Napoleon, abandon, insult, and depose him, receive honours, emoluments, and peerages from the Bourbons, whom they abandon in turn, submit again to Napoleon, and again desert him. Truly one of the most grotesque, and at the same time most repulsive images of human nature ever presented by the mirror of history! Gervinus has remarked that the vicissitudes of the period are exhibited, as it were in a masquerade, in the manners and dress of the people. The plain attire, the familiar address of the citoyen, supersede the elegant toilette, the polite and dignified manners which characterized the ancient regime; while this intermediate state of equality and fraternity as quickly gives place to the brutal manners and vulgar dress, the red cap and the carmagnole of the sans-culottes. But soon the fantastic costume of the 'jetmesse dore'e betrays a disgust of past excesses. Bonaparte picks the crown out of the gutter, with his own hand puts it on his own head, then surrounds himself with a court of more than regal splendour, which apes at the same time the tastes of imperial Rome, in adulation of the wouldbe.