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JAPAN'S HISTORY LIBRARY

 

 

 

JAPAN'S GENERAL HISTORY LIBRARY

 

IV

THE TRIUMPH OF NEW JAPAN

 

 

THE EVE OF THE WAR BETWEEN JAPAN AND RUSSIA. SINKING OF THE RUSSIAN CRUISER VARYAG AT CHEMULPO. The Russo-Japanese War was formally declared on February 10, 1904. Japan had, on February 6, broken off diplomatic relations with Russia, and at midnight, February 8, torpedoed two battleships and a cruiser. The next day the Japanese damaged another battleship and three cruisers, and sank the cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreietz off Chemulpo, Korea.

 

THE year after the conclusion of peace with China, 1896, is memorable for the occurrence of a stupendous natural catastrophe—the tidal wave, of seismic origin, that swept over the north-eastern coast of the main island, with the dire results described on an earlier page. This awful visitation was borne by the people with their usual patient fortitude and helpfulness: it is in straits like these that the best qualities of the Japanese are seen.

Besides, this was a period when the hearts of the Japanese were glad, for the nation had gained, two years ago, a peaceful victory, as important as any of the triumphs of their arms against the Chinese. In 1894, Britain had consented to a revision of her treaty with Japan, abrogating the obnoxious Extra-Territoriality Clause; in other words, placing her subjects in Japan under Japanese jurisdiction, being thus the first Great Power to treat Japan on a footing of equality. The Japanese have long memories for injury, real or imaginary; it is to be hoped that good deeds live as long in their minds; if so, they will ever remember with gratitude Britain's action as the first great nation to treat them as equals. The other nations soon followed suit, more or less willingly, and thus was removed a constant cause of irritation that had exasperated the Japanese for many years. Every failure of their diplomacy to secure the revision of the treaties had caused an outburst of popular indignation; Count Okuma—who succeeded Admiral Yamamoto as Prime Minister in 1914—was, in 1888, when Minister of Foreign Affairs, dangerously wounded by a fanatical critic of his policy for securing revision, who threw a bomb at his carriage, causing such injuries that the Count had to suffer the amputation of a leg. The revised treaties were not to come into operation for some time (August, 1899, was the date when they came into force), and it was provided that the moment foreigners became subject to Japanese law and Japanese tribunals the whole country would be thrown open to them for travel, residence, and trade. In 1897, another diplomatic success became apparent, Japan having obtained from foreign countries consent to a revision, in a sense highly favourable to Japan's Protectionist tendencies, of the very low Customs Tariff that had been imposed on her, virtually at the point of the bayonet, by the early treaties.

The same year, 1897, saw the introduction of the gold standard by Count (now Marquis) Matsukata, then Minister of Finance. This bold innovation, introduced with great skill, has completely fulfilled its chief object, by enabling Japan to borrow, at reasonable rates, in London and other gold-using money markets. The nationalisation of the railways, decided on in 1906 has probably the same aim, providing the State with a very valuable asset that can be used as security for loans to be contracted abroad. The successful carrying out of such an important financial operation as the introduction of the gold standard is another feather in the cap of a Treasury that succeeded in restoring the national finances at a time when the paper-money was at an alarming discount (as much as 60 per cent, in 1881), and that instituted the Government tobacco monopoly in spite of the great difficulties to be overcome.

The year 1897 is one to be remembered with gratification by the Japanese people, for it marks a notable epoch in the gradual extension of their liberties; the Press laws were amended in a liberal sense, and the right of public meeting (under certain, not very drastic, restrictions) was by law established. In the following year, 1898, a Revised Civil Code was promulgated; every revision of the laws tended to improve the legal status of the Japanese woman, just as every year brought, and still brings, increased facilities for her education, from the infant school and the kinder­garten up to the University for Women opened in Tokio in 1901. From July to October, 1898, the first Party Cabinet, so far the only one to which that description properly applies, was in office, under Count Okuma as Premier and Minister of Foreign Affairs. The experiment was not brilliantly successful, and it made way for a Cabinet of the usual "opportunist" type more congenial to Japanese conditions, a "Cabinet of Affairs," with Field-Marshal Marquis (later Prince) Yamagata at its head. In August, 1899, the revised treaties came smoothly into operation and Japan was entirely opened to all comers. The new tariff also became operative in this year. In May, 1900, the Crown Prince married the Princess Sadako (born in 1884), fourth daughter of the late Prince Kujo, their happy union being blessed with three sons. The rights of the people were further enlarged in the same year by an extension of the Parliamentary Franchise, hitherto very limited.

But the event of 1900 that looms largest in history is the fanatical out­break of the so-called Boxers in Northern China, rabid patriots, lashed into fury by the game of "grab" that was being carried on by European Powers at the expense of helpless, decrepit China, as she was before her awakening. The salient feature of the brief, and not very glorious, campaign of the eight Powers, who despatched troops to suppress the rising, was the part taken in it by the admirably-equipped Japanese force, under Major-General Fukushima (of "Siberian Ride" fame). The absolute efficiency of the Japanese contingent, their gallantry in action, and, above all, their excellent conduct, together with the services rendered by the handful of Japanese soldiers sailors and civilians who, under the able leadership of Colonel Shiba (afterwards Military Attaché to the Japanese Embassy in London), did more for the defence of the besieged Legations in Peking than any other body—these facts, when known in Europe, had a strong influence in bringing about an event that was to astound the world. And well it might, for there has never been a compact that has exercised, in so short a time, such an important influence on the course of history as the Anglo-Japanese Agreement, concluded in January, 1902. Its aim was to ensure cooperation between the two Powers in protection of their identical interest in the preservation of peace in the Far East, and in case of war in that part of the world between one of them and one other nation, to limit the conflict to the two combatants

This provision was, of course, directed towards the probability of Russia being joined by France, her ally, in the event of hostilities in the Far East. It simply amounted to this: Russia was informed, by the existence of this Agreement, that if she attacked either Japan or Britain single-handed, she would be met and opposed single­handed, but the appearance of an ally by her side would immediately, and automatically, unite the forces of Britain and Japan against her and her partner.

The Agreement also recognised the independence of China and—once more—Korea. That Britain, departing from her traditional policy of "splendid isolation", should enter into such an agreement, and with an Asiatic "heathen" nation, is conclusive proof of two facts—the emergency of the moment, and the great change that had come over popular feeling in the British Empire towards Japan. The emergency was indeed pressing; the rapid construction of the great Trans-Siberian Railway, the large fleet Russia was keeping in the Pacific, and constantly reinforcing, her possession of Port Arthur (against which the half-hearted British occupation of Wei-hai-wei, after its evacuation by the Japanese, was but a futile set-off), the Muscovite preponderance in Korea, but especially Russia's military occupation of Manchuria, placed at her mercy by Li Hung Chang—all these factors gave colour to Russia's boast that she was now mistress of the Far East. And the Russians in that part of the world, from Admiral Alexeieff, the "Viceroy of the Far East," downwards, behaved as if it belonged to them. As to popular feeling in Britain, the triumph of Japan over China had produced a deep impression; besides, the public mind was immeasurably better informed on Japanese matters than eight years before, and took a warm interest in them. Numerous books had made Japan widely known; the Japan Society of London had undoubtedly done much, by its meetings and its publications, to disseminate trustworthy information on all sorts of Japanese subjects, and the present writer probably helped towards creating a sympathetic feeling throughout the British Isles by his lectures, delivered before people of all classes, during ten winters, from Cheltenham to Cork, from Dundee to Dover. At any rate, the Agreement was hailed with enthusiasm in Japan, and in Britain too.

The Agreement was designed to keep the peace in the Far East; it had exactly the opposite effect, and led, indirectly, to a terrible war. This is to be attributed solely to a miscalculation on the part of its framers—probably only on the British side, the Japanese were better informed—as to the effect it would have on Russia. No one in Britain could believe that the war party in Russia would be so reckless, or the Tsar so weak as to let himself be carried away by their rash boldness. But "whom the gods would destroy, they first deprive of reason". It was not otherwise with Russia, who, throughout the long and tedious negotiations with Japan, in 1903, on the subject of Korea and of Manchuria, blindly went towards her disastrous fate by goading the Japanese into cold, silent exasperation by studied indifference, contemptuous delays, and promises made only to be broken. This was the attitude in St. Petersburg; in the Far East, Russia continued to play a huge game of bluff. At last Japan's patience was exhausted. Knowing Russia's weakness and her own strength, doubled by the agreement with Britain, which ensured a well-kept ring for the great fight, and made financial support from the London money-market more than probable, she broke off diplomatic relations on February 6th, 1904, and, at midnight on February 8th, a division of her fleet suddenly attacked the unsuspecting Russians at Port Arthur, and torpedoed two battle­ships—Retvisan and Tsarevich—and the cruiser Pallada. The next day the Japanese returned to the attack and damaged another battleship (Poltava) and three cruisers (Diana, Askold, Novik). On the same day, another Japanese squadron, which had covered the landing the day before at Chemulpo, in Korea, of the vanguard of the Japanese Army, sank, at that port, the Russian cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreietz. Japan formally declared war on February 10.

Thus began the Titanic struggle that was to revolutionise the conditions of Asia, to upset the balance of power in Europe, to cause a new "setting to partners" amongst the nations, and, most important of all, to give to Russian absolutism, that survival from the Dark Ages, a blow from which it cannot recover. The limits of this History will not allow of a detailed description of this gigantic war, so full of moving incidents,nor even of a connected narrative. A short Diary of the War must suffice, beginning with its declaration on February 10, down to the fall of Port Arthur.

 

JAPAN IN WAR TIME: THE MAIN STREET OF TOKIO DURING THE WAR WITH RUSSIA

 

 

DIARY OF THE WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN

 

1904

 

FEBRUARY

 

11 Russian ill-luck begins. Mine-laying ship Yenisei sunk by a mine (probably one of her own) at Talienwan.

Russia's great naval constructor, Admiral Makaroff, appointed to command the fleet at Port Arthur, superseding Admiral Stark. General Kuropatkin, Minister of War, appointed Commander-in-Chief of the troops in Manchuria.

14 Russian cruiser Boyarin torpedoed at Port Arthur by Japanese destroyers.

21 The Viceroy, Admiral Alexeieff, removes his headquarters from Port Arthur to Mukden.

23 First Japanese attempt to block Port Arthur harbour. Unsuccessful.

25 Russian destroyer Vnushitelni sunk in Pigeon Bay.

MARCH

Vladivostock forts bombarded by Japanese ships. A Russian destroyer sunk by Japanese torpedo-boats.

17 Russian destroyer Skori blown up by a mine.

27 Second attempt to block Port Arthur. Also unsuccessful, in spite of heroic bravery of Japan's sailors.

28 Japanese defeat Cossacks at Cheng-ju, in Korea. A small affair, but the first fight on land. General (now Count) Kuroki commences his advance, with the First Army Corps of 45,000 men, on Wi-ju, at the mouth of the Yalu (Korea).

APRIL

7 Russians fall back before Kuroki, who occupies Wi-ju.

13 Russian battleship Petropavlovsk strikes a Japanese mine (having been lured on to a mine field by Admiral Togo's tactics) and sinks; Admiral Makaroff, the battle-painter Verestchágin, and all on board drowned except eighty. The Grand Duke Cyril amongst the survivors.

25 Russian Vladivostock squadron cruises, sinks small Japanese merchant-steamer and the transport Kin-shu Maru, the latter with troops on board, who refuse to surrender and continue to fire until covered by the waves. The officers commit hara-kiri.

MAY

1 Kuroki forces the passage of the Yalu River. Complete rout of the Russians. Japanese artillery splendidly handled. Japanese infantry storm Kiu-lien-cheng. Japanese take 29 guns, bury 1,363 Russian dead, and take 613 prisoners. Japanese loss: 318 killed, 783 wounded.

3 Admiral Togo seals up Port Arthur, as far as large craft are concerned, by sinking eight merchant steamers (purchased for the purpose) in the narrow mouth of the harbour.

5 Second Japanese Army Corps, under General (now Count) Oku, lands at Yen-tao, on east coast of Liao-tung Peninsula. Landing covered by the fleet under Admiral (now Count) Togo, whose headquarters, carefully kept secret, are at the Hall Islands, on the west coast of Korea.

12 Oku's troops occupy various points on the Peninsula and cut the railway. A Japanese torpedo-boat destroyed by Russian mine.

15 A Japanese despatch-boat meets with the same fate. On this unlucky day for the Japanese Navy it lost, further, the splendid cruiser Yoshino, with 235 officers and crew. She was rammed by her comrade, the cruiser Kasuga, in a dense fog off Port Arthur. Worse still, the battleships Hatsusé and Yashima struck Russian mines and sank, the former with 61 officers and 378 crew; from the latter all hands were saved. This happened ten miles south-east of Port Arthur. The loss of the Hatsusé was kept secret for some time; that of the Yashima until the war was over. The Russians also lost a ship at this time, the cruiser Bogatyr, which ran ashore in a fog near Vladivostock, and became a total wreck.

27 Oku captures Kin-chau and carries the strong Russian position at Nan-sharr at the ninth successive assault. He takes 68 guns and 10 machine guns, losing 739 killed and 3,456 wounded.

29 Oku takes Dalny (Tia-ren) to be used as a sea base General Baron (later Count) Nogi commences the investment of (Port Arthur, defended by General Stoessel.

THE JAPANESE, UNDER GENERAL OKU, CAPTURING THE WALLED TOWN OF KINCHAU

 

JUNE

14&15 Oku having marched northward to meet General Stackelberg, who was endeavouring to relieve Port Arthur, defeats him at Telissu. Japanese bury 1,854 Russian dead, and take 16 guns and 300 prisoners. Japanese loss: 217 killed, 946 wounded.

23 Field-marshal Marquis (now Prince) Oyama appointed Commander-in-Chief of the three army corps (Kuroki's, Oku's, and General Count, now Marquis, Nodzu's), which were now in touch along a front of from 150 to 180 miles. The late Lieut-General Kodama was appointed Chief of Oyama's Staff.

27 Kuroki captures the Ta-ling and Mo-tien-ling Passes.

 

JAPANESE SOLDIERS ON THE WAY TO THE FRONT : THE NOONDAY MEAL OF TEA AND RICE

JULY

 

4 After a few days of truce caused by the torrential rains, the Russians attempt to retake the Mo-tien-ling Pass and fail.

9 Nodzu has three days continuous fighting and drives the enemy back. He occupies Kai-ping.

17 Lieut.-General Count Keller, with two Russian divisions, attempts, but in vain, to retake the Mo-tien-ling Pass.

25 Oku occupies Ta-shih-chiao, after fighting all day and far into the night.

27 Japanese occupy Niu-chwang, and make it an advanced base.

31 Japanese advance all along the line.

AUGUST

28 Major-General Kontkovsky defeated and killed at An-shan-chan. Japanese take eight field guns after stubborn fighting. Almost at the same time, Kuroki is Aghting hard against Kuropatkin, who tries to overwhelm him before the other army corps can come to his assistance, but fails, and loses eight guns at Hung-sha-ling.

AUGUST 30 TO SEPTEMBER 4

The six-days battle of Liau-yang. Kuroki, Nodzu and Oku defeat Kuropatkin, who, however, makes a splendid retreat, extricating his army from a very dangerous position. Opposing forces : Russians about 180,000; Japanese about 200,000. Russian losses about 4,000 killed and 12,000 wounded. Japanese casualties: about 17,539.

 

THE SIX-DAYS BATTLE OF LIAO-YANG, WHEN NEARLY 400.000 MEN WERE ENCAGED

 

SEPTEMBER

Torrential rains throughout the greater part of the month made operations impossible.

OCTOBER

10 to 15 The five-days' battle of the Sha-ho. The Russians, under Kuropatkin, defeated by Oyama. The Japanese bury 13,333 Russian corpses, and capture 709 prisoners and 45 guns. The total Russian casualties in this great fight are estimated at about 60,000, the total Japanese casualties at about 15,000.

The exhausted armies entrench themselves, the River Sha-ho dividing them, and remain watching each other for the rest of the year.

THE SIEGE OF PORT ARTHUR

 

JULY

2 Capture of the Miao-tsin Fort.

6 Taking of No. 16 Fort.

26 Capture of Lang-shan ("Wolf's Hill"), to three miles north of the harbour and commanding it. The Japanese lose over 4,000 killed and wounded in the three days' fighting, but the Russians are driven back from the outlying works to the permanent defences.

AUGUST

Taku-shan and Shaku-shan, on the eastern front, taken by storm. Batteries mounted on these important positions, including heavy guns from the ships, with seamen-gunners to serve them.

16 Summons to surrender sent in to General Stoessel, and promptly and emphatically refused, as is also an offer of safe-conduct for all non-combatants. A general assault is, soon after, delivered, but fails on the whole, although the forts east and west of Pan-lung-shan are captured. This terrible assault costs the Japanese a heavy casualty list. It is estimated that they lost 14,000 killed and wounded between August 19th and 24th. Direct assault proving impracticable, the old-fashioned approach by saps, parallels, and mines is decided on, and the whole besieging force is set to dig between thirty and forty miles of trenches and tunnels.

SEPTEMBER

29 Several forts are captured, including Fort Kuropatkin. The position of these forts enables the Japanese to damage some of the Russian warships in harbour by indirect Are.

OCTOBER

35 Heavy bombardment by the largest siege and naval guns continues ceaselessly for four days, doing great damage to the Russian guns.

30 The crests and glacis of Sung-shu-shan, Erh-lung-shan, and the northern fort of East Ki-kwan-shan are taken, with another fort near Ki-kwan-shan, in which three held guns and two machine guns are taken.

NOVEMBER

3 Bombardment of the dock and eastern harbour, causing a great fire and sinking some ships.

26 General attack on the centre of the permanent forts.

30 Capture of 203-Metre Hill, which commands the harbour and dockyard. Failure of attempt, on same day, to storm Erh-lung-shan and Sung-shu-shan forts.

DECEMBER

2 Carnage so great that a six-hours' truce is arranged for dealing with the dead and wounded on both sides.

DECEMBER

3 Japanese bring up heavy ordnance to 203-Metre Hill, and bombard the harbour with 11-inch shells, hitting most of the warships repeatedly, putting them out of action and partially submerging most of them, between this date and the 9th.

9 The Sevastopol steams out to the mouth of the harbour and is torpedoed by Japanese torpedo-boats.

12 Bold raids by Japanese torpedo-boat to flotillas. One boat disabled and abandoned.

18 Capture, at night, of the north fort of East Ki-kwan-shan on the eastern ridge, with a number of Reid, quick-firing, and machine guns.

22 Japanese hold all the Russian advanced positions to the west of the fortress.

28 The very strong Erh-lung-shan fort is undermined, the tunnels having to be cut through the solid rock. The fort is breached by dynamite, and carried by storm, a large number of guns, including four heavy ones and thirty guns of 37-millimetre calibre, are taken.

31 The great Sung-shu-shan Fort captured, together with seven guns, by similar means to those employed against Erh-lung-shan.

 

 

THE JAPANESE ARMY IN THE MOUNTAINS: CROSSING THE YALU RIVER UNDER FIRE

 

1905

JANUARY

1 General Nogi receives a letter, of the previous day's date, from General Stoessel, acknowledging the uselessness of further resistance, and proposing a parley. General Nogi assents, and sends a staff-officer into the fortress.

2 At four p.m., the terms of surrender are arranged. The Emperor of Japan telegraphs his appreciation of the gallant defence, and desires that all the honours of war should be paid to General Stoessel and his troops. At 9.45 p.m. the capitulation is signed, whereby the fortress, with all arms, ammunition, stores, ships—in short, all Government property—are to be handed over to the Japanese, some of the forts being immediately evacuated and transferred as a guarantee

3 The Russian officers, naval, military, and civil, are allowed to retain their swords, and all those giving their written parole are permitted to return to Russia, each officer being allowed to take one soldier-servant with him.

7 The evacuation of the fortress is completed this day. The total number of prisoners amounts to 878 officers and 23,491 men, whereof 441 officers, and 229 orderlies accompanying them, give their parole. This total of prisoners includes more than 6,300 naval officers and seamen.

The Japanese behaved with the greatest kindness and consideration to the prisoners, both at the surrender and afterwards at the admirably-managed cantonments erected for them in Japan. A special department was instituted for the purpose of supplying their relatives at home with news of their whereabouts and condition, and, for the first time in history, efforts were made to hand to the families of the Russian dead, through the intermediary of the French Government, such articles of private property as were found on their bodies by the Japanese, when time would allow of a search. General Count Nogi, the chivalrous conqueror of Port Arthur, the fortress that nature and military engineering skill had combined to make so strong that it was generally regarded as impregnable, lost both his sons, one at Nan-shan and the other killed during the siege. His trusted old soldier-servant, his favourite horse, and his faithful dog were also killed before Port Arthur. General Nogi held a review of his victorious troops at Port Arthur, and thus ended the greatest siege of modern times, one in which the Japanese performed miracles of valour and patriotic devotion.

During the siege the Russian cruiser Novik came out, with ten destroyers, on June 14th, 1904, and an inconclusive engagement with Japanese torpedo-craft ensued. On the 13th of the same month the Vladivostock cruiser squadron made a raid outside the Straits of Korea, looted and sank two small Japanese sailing ships, and sank the transport Izumi Maru, after the people on board those ships had escaped in the boats. Shortly afterwards, the same squadron torpedoed and sank the transports Hitachi Maru and Sado Maru, with all on board, as they refused to surrender.

The Japanese destroyers and torpedo-boats were unceasingly active during the siege of Port Arthur, harrying such of the enemy's ships as ventured to the mouth of the harbour or outside. They succeeded in damaging several of them. On August 10th, 1904, the Russian squadron attempted to escape from Port Arthur, where it was being subjected to a plunging fire from the Japanese heavy guns on Wolf's Hill. Admiral Vitoft was in command, and was killed in the action, lasting from noon till night, which ensued when Admiral Togo intercepted and dispersed the Russians. Five battleships, one cruiser, and three destroyers managed to regain the harbour, only to be sunk in its muddy waters, later on, by the Japanese fire. They were ultimately raised, with great skill, by the Japanese, and most of them, under new names, now form part of the Japanese Navy. The ships which did not return into the harbour mostly escaped to neutral ports, where they were disarmed and interned until the close of the war.

On August 14th, 1904, an attempt, by the Vladivostock squadron, to sail south, was frustrated by Admiral Kamimura, who sank the celebrated Russian cruiser Rurik, from which the Japanese rescued 600 drowning Russians, as they said, "in return for the cruel loss of Japanese lives when the Novik sank the transport Hitachi Maru". Truly, a noble revenge! On September 18th, 1904, the Japanese armoured gunboat Hei-yen foundered off Pigeon Bay, through striking a mine, 300 men going down in her. The cruiser Sai-yen also struck a mine on November 13th, and sank, with her commander and 39 men, 191 officers and men being saved by the boats of other ships.

All the other work done by the Japanese Navy, heroic though it was, pales beside its greatest achievement, the Trafalgar of modern times, the glorious victory won by the Japanese Nelson, Admiral Count Togo, over the fleet of Admiral Rozhdestvensky, which had been seven months on its weary voyage from the Baltic to the Straits of Tsu-shima, there to be practically annihilated, as a fleet, on May 27th, 1905. Never was the progress of a fleet watched with greater interest all over the world, and, although it had become known that such a ridiculous Armada—a medley of good ships and bad, fast ones and slow, manned, for the most part, by landsmen in sailors' rig—had never yet put to sea, the crowning victory of the Japanese Navy came as a surprise to many.

With consummate strategy, Togo fixed upon the exact spot where he would like to meet the enemy in Japanese waters. He pounced upon them, just there, like a Japanese hawk, and the superior gunnery and seamanship of the Japanese, the greater speed of their ships, the homogeneous nature of their squadron, and the terrible, stupefying effects of the high explosives with which their great shells were charged, made the Russian Admiral's fight a hopeless one. But even without the advantages just enumerated, the Japanese would have gained the victory, because they meant to, and they knew how.

In these few words are summed up the two greatest lessons to be derived from the Russo-Japanese War : that victory is only for those who are determined to sacrifice their lives, if need be, to gain it, provided they unite with their indomitable spirit thorough technical knowledge and the skill which comes only from long and careful, intelligent training. The voyage of the Baltic Fleet to meet its doom at Tsu­shima was, wean the difficulties arising from its composition are taken into consideration, really a wonderful feat of seaman­ship; what Admiral Rozhdestvensky must have suffered from continual anxiety during those long months may be better imagined than described. The hyper-nervous condition of his officers was well illustrated by the tragedy of the North Sea, when, on the night of October 21st, 1904, his fleet fired at random on the Hull trawlers, peacefully pursuing their avocation on the Dogger Bank. The steam-trawler Crane was sunk, being mistaken, so it was alleged, for a Japanese torpedo-boat; other craft were damaged, two men were killed and several seriously wounded, including some Russians, for, in their frenzied panic, the Russian gunners kept up a heavy fire on their own ships, wounding the chaplain of their cruiser Aurora so severely that he died at Tangier, when the squadron called there.

This outrageous occurrence caused burning indignation in Great Britain, and the Government found itself compelled to ask Russia for redress in such a severe tone that the Japanese feared, for a moment, that the glory of their ultimate triumph might be diminished by a British participation in the overthrow of Russia. Their fears were groundless; Britain soon moderated her tone, took part in a solemnly farcical Commission of Inquiry held in Paris, and accepted an indemnity. On January 11th and 12th, 1905, General Mishchenko's Cossack and other cavalry raided down to old Niu-chwang, destroying a quantity of Japanese stores, but this effort, about the only instance of dash on the part of the Russian horse­men—the Cossacks entirely lost their ancient reputation in this campaign—had no effect whatever on the course of the war, and was far surpassed in boldness by the raid of a small body of Japanese cavalry, who penetrated a long way behind the Russian lines.

From January 25th to 29th a battle raged at Hei-kau-tai, where the Russians, under Gripenberg, attacked the left wing of the Japanese operating in Manchuria, but were repulsed. On February 23rd hostilities were resumed at the other end of the line, where the Japanese right was beginning its movement against Mukden, which led to the occupation of that city by the Japanese, after a battle that ranks as probably the greatest in history, lasting a week of fighting by day and night, culminating in the entry of the Japanese into the capital of Manchuria on March 10th. In the battle of Mukden 750.000 men were engaged (about 330,000 Russians and about 400,000 Japanese). The Russians lost about 28,500 killed, between 90.000 and 100,000 wounded, and 66 out of Kuropatkin's 1,500 guns. The Japanese took about 45,000 prisoners in this stupendous fight, their victory costing them a loss of nearly 50,000 dead and wounded. These figures must be pondered over before their full significance can be thoroughly grasped.

PRINCE OYAMA

Chief of the Japanese Armies in the war with Russia

The further operations in Manchuria were of minor importance. General Linevitch, who replaced,on March 17th, Kuropatkin as Commander-in-Chief, had no opportunity of retrieving his country's lost fortunes in the Far East, for Togo's victory had set the seal on Japan's triumph. Russia understood it. Weary and bleeding from many wounds, robbed, right and left, by those whose honesty should have been unimpeachable, and with revolution simmering at home, she was willing to listen to President Roosevelt's invitation to negotiate, extended to her and to Japan.

On August 9th, 1905, nine days after the surrender of the Russian forces in the Island of Saghalin, the Peace Conference opened at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, U.S.A. From that day till August 26th the plenipotentiaries of the two empires discussed, without any apparent chance of agreement, and it seemed as if the war would have to recommence when, on August 26th, Mr. (later Count) de Witte finally declared that Russia refused to pay any war indemnity whatsoever. To the world's amazement, on August 29th complete agreement between the late belligerents was rendered possible by the announcement, by Baron (later Count) Koinura, that Japan waived her demand for an indemnity, and accepted the southern half of Saghalin, up to the fiftieth degree of north latitude, in lieu of the whole island she had at first claimed.

The conditions of the peace were set forth in a long agreement, of which, in view of its historic interest, we give the chief provisions:

There shall henceforth be peace and amity between their Majesties the Emperor of Japan and the Emperor of all the Russias and between their respective States and subjects.

The Imperial Russian Government, acknowledging that Japan possesses in Korea paramount political, military, and economical interests, engages neither to obstruct nor interfere with the measures of guidance, protection, and control which the Imperial Government of Japan may find it necessary to take in Korea. It is understood that Russian subjects in Korea shall be treated exactly in the same manner as the subjects or citizens of other foreign Powers—that is to say, on the footing of the most favoured nation. The two High Contracting Parties will abstain on the Russo-Korean frontier from taking any military measures which may menace the security of Russian or Korean territory.

Japan and Russia mutually engage to evacuate simultaneously Manchuria, except the territory affected by the lease of the Liau-tung Peninsula; and to restore to the exclusive administration of China all portions of Manchuria now under the control of the Japanese or Russian troops with the exception of the territory above mentioned. Russia declares she has not in Manchuria any territorial advantages or preferential or exclusive concessions in impairment of Chinese sovereignty or inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity.

Japan and Russia reciprocally engage not to obstruct any general measures common to all countries which China may take for the development of the commerce and industry of Manchuria.

Russia, transfers and assigns to Japan, with the consent of China, the lease of Port Arthur, Ta-lien, and adjacent territory and territorial waters and all rights, privileges, and concessions connected with or forming part of such lease, and she also transfers and assigns to Japan all public works and properties in the territory affected by the above-mentioned lease. Japan undertakes that the proprietary rights of Russian subjects in the territory above referred to shall be perfectly respected.

Russia engages to transfer and assign to Japan, without compensation and with the consent of the Chinese Government, the railway between Chang-chun (Kwang-cheng-tsze) and Port Arthur and all its branches, together with all rights, privileges, and properties appertaining thereto in that region, as well as all coal-mines in the said region belonging to or worked for the benefit of the railway. The two High Contracting Parties mutually engage to obtain the consent of China mentioned in the foregoing stipulation.

Japan and Russia engage to exploit their respective railways in Manchuria exclusively for commercial and industrial purposes, and in nowise for strategic purposes. It is understood that this restriction does not apply to the railway in the territory affected by the lease of the Liau-tung Peninsula.

Japan and Russia, with a view to promote and facilitate intercourse and traffic, will, as soon as possible, conclude a separate convention for the regulation of their connecting railway services in Manchuria.

Russia cedes to Japan in perpetuity and full sovereignty the southern portion of the Island of Saghalin and all islands adjacent thereto and public works and properties thereon. The 50th degree of north latitude is adopted as the northern boundary of the ceded territory. Japan and Russia mutually agree not to construct in their respective possessions on the Island of Saghalin or the adjacent islands any fortifications or other similar military works. They also respectively engage not to take any military measures which may impede the free navigation of the Straits of La Perouse and Tartary.

It is reserved to the Russian subjects, inhabitants of the territory ceded to Japan, to sell their real property and retire to their country; but if they prefer to remain in the ceded territory they will be maintained and protected in the full exercise of their industries and rights of property on condition of submitting to Japanese laws and jurisdiction. Japan shall have full liberty to withdraw the right of residence or to deport from such territory any inhabitants who labour under political or administrative disability. She engages, however, that the proprietary rights of such inhabitants shall be fully respected.

Russia engages to arrange with Japan for granting to Japanese subjects rights of fishery along the coasts of the Russian possessions in the Japan, Okhotsk, and Bering Seas. It is agreed that the foregoing engagement shall not affect rights already belonging to Russian or foreign subjects in those regions.

The treaty of commerce and navigation between Japan and Russia having been annulled by the war, the Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia engage to adopt as the basis of their commercial relations, pending the conclusion of a new treaty of commerce and navigation on the basis of the treaty which was in force before the present war, the system of reciprocal treatment on the footing of the most favoured nation.

The Governments of Japan and Russia shall present to each other a statement of the direct expenditures respectively incurred by them for the care and maintenance of prisoners from the date of capture or surrender up to the time of death or delivery. Russia engages to repay Japan the difference between the actual amount so expended by Japan and the actual amount similarly disbursed by Russia.

By an additional Article both Powers are allowed to station troops in Manchuria to guard their Railways, their number not to exceed 15 men for each kilometre of track

In presence of the leniency of the victors, displayed in this treaty, the world was at a loss to understand Japan's sudden moderation. It was generally ascribed, in English-speaking countries, to an almost superhuman magnanimity; and there was, indeed, something of this noble spirit in the decision taken, at the eleventh hour, by the Emperor's advisers; but the chief reason that induced them was, without doubt, the financial exhaustion of Japan at the time.  

The financiers of Europe and America were the real peace-makers who refused to let either Japan or Russia have money to continue the war, except on exorbitant terms. And money is still the crucial question in connection with the future development of that wonderland, Japan.

Resplendent in her new glory, that shines, indeed, "beyond the seas", she is, whilst wisely increasing her armed strength, settling down to a commercial and industrial campaign in which she hopes to win victories as brilliant as were her triumphs in the late war. Recognising that commerce is, after all, a kind of warfare, in which success depends on qualities and methods analogous to those that brought her victory, she is preparing for the commercial conquest of the Far East. The one thing she requires for that purpose is increased capital. The necessity of obtaining it from abroad is a strong guarantee of her peaceful demeanour. She knows full well that excess of pugnacity on her part would forfeit the confidence of foreign capitalists and damage her credit. And now a new and opulent money-market is open to her in Paris, chiefly as a result of the Franco-Japanese Agreement, guaranteeing the status quo of the possessions of both in the Far East, signed in 1907.

Whether it come from the inexhaustible stocking of the frugal French worker or from elsewhere, the question of foreign capital, its easy introduction, and profitable employment, remains the one on which the whole future development of Japan hinges. Will the Occident find the capital wherewith to finance the strenuous competition of Japan in industries, trade, and navigation? In other words, will it "cut a stick for its own back"? The answer must be, undoubtedly, affirmative, provided the security be satisfactory and the profit alluring. Abstract considerations as to probable consequences to future generations trouble the money-merchants but little.

Japan's rulers have, indeed, a difficult task before them. Whilst safeguarding her interests, they have to keep within due bounds the natural pride, not to say arrogance, that shines from the eyes of every Japanese since the victory over Russia. Every man in the nation holds his head higher since that triumph placed Japan amongst the Great Powers, her Legations in the principal capitals being raised to Embassies. It is the duty of Japan's rulers to curb the burning indignation caused by what the nation considers a slight to its honour—the refusal, on the part of Californians, British Columbians, and Australians to treat Japanese on a footing of perfect equality. The matter is one of grave importance, complicated, in the case of the British dependencies, by the fact of Japan and Britain being no longer merely partners in an Agreement, but allies, duly wedded by the Treaty of Defensive and Offensive Alliance signed in London on August 12th, 1905, and made public, officially, on September 27th of the same year. The following is the text of this compact:

The Governments of Great Britain and Japan, being desirous of replacing the Agreement of 1902, have agreed upon the following Articles, which have for their object:

The consolidation and maintenance of the general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India; the preservation of the common interest of all Powers in China by insuring the independence and integrity of the Chinese Empire and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of ail nations in China; and the maintenance of the territorial rights of the High Contracting Parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India, and the defence of their special interests in the said regions. The articles follow:

It is agreed that whenever, in the opinion of either Great Britain or Japan, any of the rights and interests referred to in the preamble of this Agreement are in jeopardy, the two Governments will communicate with one another fully and frankly, and will consider in common the measures which should be taken to safeguard those menaced rights or interests.

If by reason of unprovoked attack or aggressive action, wherever arising, on the part of any other Power or Powers either Contracting Party should be involved in war in defence of its territorial rights or special interests mentioned in the preamble of this Agreement, the other Contracting Party will at once come to the assistance of its ally, and will conduct the war in common, and make peace in mutual agreement with it.

Japan possessing paramount political, military, and economic interest in Korea, Great Britain recognises the right of Japan to take such measures of guidance, control, and protection in Korea as she may deem proper and necessary to safeguard and advance those interests, provided always that such measures are not contrary to the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of all nations.

Great Britain having a special interest in all that concerns the security of the Indian frontier, Japan recognises her right to take such measures in the proximity of that frontier as she may find necessary for safeguarding her Indian possessions.

The High Contracting Parties agree that neither of them will, without consulting the other, enter into separate arrangements with another Power to the prejudice of the objects described in the preamble of this Agreement.

The conditions under which assistance shall be afforded by either Power to the other in the circumstances mentioned in the present Agreement, and the means by which such assistance is to be made available, will be arranged by the Naval and Military authorities of the Contracting Parties, who will from time to time consult one another fully and freely upon all questions of mutual interest.

The chief objection to Japanese immigrants alleged by their bitter opponents is that they belong to a race which will not—nay, cannot—assimilate with the white population. That is a hard saying, and requires careful investigation. Has any attempt at assimilation ever been made in the countries in question, and how has it fared? Until more light is thrown upon this point, there will always be, in the minds of the unprejudiced, a shrewd suspicion that it is the excellence of the Japanese immigrant's work—not, as often thought, its cheapness, for he soon "assimilates" his demands to the current rate of wages—and his frugality, his docility, that make him unpopular with that particular class of so-called "workers" whose aim in life appears to be to work: as little as possible and obtain high pay in return for very little exertion. To anyone who knows the people of Japan well, it must appear clearly evident that frequent and intimate contact between them and the white race can tend only to the ultimate good of both. It is likely that association with white people would tend, in time, to modify, perhaps to remove, the evil characteristics that mar the Japanese nature. On the other hand, there is no doubt that the white race have much to learn from a nation that is, on the whole, composed of good men and women—a nation gifted with grand virtues far outweighing those faults that are apt to grate unpleasantly on Occidental nerves. In one word, a nation that has succeeded in producing that marvel of history—New Japan.

 

THE EMPEROR AND EMPRESS OF JAPAN

On the death of the Emperor Mutsu-hito, July 29th, 1912, his son, the Crown Prince, Yoshihito Harunomiya, born August 31st, 1879, and declared heir-apparent 1887, succeeded to the throne. Emperor Yoshihito, while Crown Prince, married the Princess Sada-ko, fourth daughter of Prince Kujo Michitaka, on May 10th, 1900, and three sons are the fruit of the marriage: Hirohito Michinomiya, born April 29th, 1901, the Crown Prince. Yasuhito Atsunomiya, born June 25th, 1902. Nobuhito Terunomiya, born January 3rd, 1905. . The Emperor’s Civil List is fixed at $1,500,000, and the royal palace is at Tokio.

It was the death of the late Emperor that moved General Nogi and his wife to commit hari-kari ; for these two, brought up in the old traditions of Japanese loyalty, deemed that with the passing of their sove¬ reign, whom Count Nogi had so long and so faithfully served, their own earthly lives should end. The dramatic suicide, and the responsible motive, startled the West. Suddenly an out¬ look and an ethical position utterly incompatible with the European out¬ look and Christian ethics were re¬ vealed. Japan, for all its reforms and adaptations of Western manners and customs, was seen, in this death of General Nogi and his wife, to be still far from the civilisation of Europe. But Count Nogi belonged to the older order in Japan, and it is unlikely that the practice of hari-kari will survive -the growing dislike of the rising generation to the traditions that governed their forefathers

 

 

5. THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF BUDDHISM THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN

 

 

 

 

 

 

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