CRISTO RAUL.ORG ' |
THE UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY |
FROM JUSTINIAN TO LUTHER. AD 518-1517
CHAPTER XVIII.THE RENAISSANCE AND RELIGION
THE Popes who reigned from 1447 to 1521 were
humanists. They favored with all their power the Renaissance of letters and the
arts. The Renaissance was a new birth, a second spring, of Greek and Roman
antiquity. Its origin can be found in the Middle Ages and its birthplace was
Italy, where classical art had enjoyed a national home. In the fourteenth
century it began to find expression in the poems of Petrarch, who lived in
Avignon and Padua, and in the tales of Boccaccio, who lived in Florence. In the
next century it was stimulated by the revived knowledge of Greek fostered in
Florence by the Byzantine Manuel Chrysoloras and a
group of scholars such as Bruni, Poggio, and Laurentius Valla, who finally
demolished the Forged Decretals and the Donation of Constantine. In Italy
learning became a passion with all classes of society. Florence was the first centre of culture, and was adorned by the splendid artistic
work of Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Ghiberti. Milan, Naples, and Ferrara soon
joined in the enthusiastic worship of the antique; and at the beginning of the
sixteenth century Rome had become the artistic capital of Italy, sought by
painters, sculptors, and architects, who left it to carry a new message to the
rest of Europe. They went not only to Paris and Madrid; their work can be
traced in Westminster and Moscow.
A Christian historian of the fifth century remarks
that the beautiful, wherever it may be, is the property of the truth. And it
was possible for keen humanists to be devout Christians. But the assertion that
man has a right to enjoy the world led to a selfish abuse of that right, the
passion for study led to a pedantic imitation of the writings of classical
authors, and the spirit of criticism led to the rejection of much that was
permanently valuable in medieval life. An outward conformity with Christianity
was accompanied by the parade of a self-conscious paganism. The moral
corruption of Italy was profound, and Rome was defiled by an unabashed
surrender to the worst vices of antiquity.
Behind these splendors and these vices there loomed
the growing terror inspired by the Turks, and the Popes of the Renaissance must
be considered not only in relation to learning and the religious welfare of the
Church, but also in relation to the Muslim peril which they endeavored to
avert.
Nicholas V (1447-1455) was a marvel of classical
scholarship and the founder of the famous Vatican library. He has been called
the Father of Humanism, and he was devoted to books and building. But his
secretaries worked more for the library than for the Church, and among them was
the obscene writer Poggio. The Jubilee held in Rome in 1450 attracted vast
crowds of pilgrims. The result was a pestilence which filled the churches and
hospitals and the roads to Rome with dead and dying people. In 1453 the plot of
a young nobleman to seize and kill the Pope, and the news of the taking of
Constantinople by the Turks, shattered the old man's health, and he died in
March 1455. He was not wholly blind to the interests of Christendom. He
confided to Nicholas of Cusa the reform of abuses among the priests and monks
of Germany, to Cardinal William d'Estouteville the reform of schools and
colleges in France, and he favored the preaching missions of the Franciscan St.
John of Capistrano in Germany, Italy, and Poland. Nicholas was polished and
gracious in his manners, he improved the secular government of Rome and the
Papal States, and his grandiose schemes for rebuilding St. Peter's and the
walls and churches of Rome were less the result of personal pride than the
desire to restore the diminished prestige of the papacy itself.
Calixtus III (1455-1458) had been the Spanish
cardinal, Alfonso Borgia. The Spaniards have a cynical proverb concerning
nephews, and the nephews to whom the new Pope was so devoted did their uncle
little credit. One of them whom he brought to Rome was Rodrigo, afterwards the
infamous Pope Alexander VI. But his love for his nephews was equaled by his
hatred of the Turks. He took an oath that, if necessary, he would shed his
blood to free Constantinople from their sway, and he sold many of his
possessions in order to equip a fleet for that purpose. But he appealed in vain
to the princes of Christendom to join in a crusade. England and France,
Germany, Norway, Denmark, and Portugal were deaf to his summons. Only Hungary,
with the wolf at her door, provided the right man for the moment. That man was
Hunyadi Janos.
Hunyadi several years earlier had inflicted more than
one disaster upon the Turkish army. He had, since 1440, borne the burden of
defending the life of Christendom, and he was ready to meet Muhammad II even
when the Turk was flushed with the conquest of Constantinople. The Turk
intended to take Hungary and to capture the Serbian capital Belgrad as holding the key to Hungary. Hunyadi, deserted by the other Magyar nobles,
had no efficient helper except St. John of Capistrano, whose fervid eloquence
stirred yeomen and peasants to rally to his support. At his own expense Hunyadi
armed and victualled the fortress of Belgrad, and on
July the 14th, 1456, his flotilla destroyed the Turkish fleet. A week later,
after a desperate fight, Hunyadi captured the Turkish camp, and the defeated
sultan retreated to Constantinople. In 1459 Serbia, which had never recovered
from her dearly bought defeat at Kossovo in 1389,
became a Turkish pashalik directly under the Porte. But Hungary was secure from
the invader until 1526, when the Sultan Suleiman laid waste one-fourth of the
country. Hunyadi's integrity, unselfishness, statecraft, and heroism entitle
him to one of the highest places in the history of Christian chivalry, and his
death from the plague only three weeks after his splendid victory was a tragic
end to a career of tragic achievement. He was soon followed to the tomb by John
of Capistrano; Scanderbeg, the Albanian who rivaled his exploits, was betrayed
by his own nephew; and Pope Calixtus III died on the day that the Turks
captured Corinth.
Pius II (1458-1464) was Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini,
who took the name of Pius, not without an allusion to the 'pius Aeneas' of Vergil. He was a diplomat and a humanist. He wrote a novel and a
play, and certain 'Commentaries' which contain a frank account of his own life
and times. But he showed more reserve in granting favors to other humanists
than they had anticipated. He faced the world with the maxim, “Aeneam reiicite, Pium recipite”.
He was involved in a prolonged quarrel with George Podjebrad, King of Bohemia, refusing categorically to
sanction Holy Communion in both kinds, the necessity of which George vigorously
asserted. This quarrel, and the political complications which it involved,
hindered the progress of the Pope's plans for a crusade. But in spite of
undisguised opposition or coldness in every quarter, the Pope declared that he
would put himself at the head of an expedition against the Turks. After a
pilgrimage to Assisi he went to Ancona and waited for the fleet due to arrive
from Venice. Twelve galleys arrived on August the 12th, 1464, and received his
blessing. Three days later the frail pontiff died.
Paul II (1464-1471) was free from the guilt of
nepotism and was a man of dignity and courage. He was a friend of learning, and
made a fine collection of antiquities. But he was slandered as illiterate and
as an enemy of humanism because he suppressed the so-called 'Roman academy', a
club which professed to revive the worship of the pagan gods. Its head was
'Pomponius Laetus', a bastard whose real name was Giulio Bernardino, and from
its members the College of Abbreviators of the Chancery was recruited. Paul II
suppressed the college. He also pronounced the deposition of George Podjebrad, who had openly favored the extreme Hussite
opinions of Rokyczan, including Anabaptism and
consubstantiation.
Sixtus IV (1471-1484), an eloquent Franciscan who had
never known the use of money, gave money away as long as he had any to give. He
heaped favors upon unworthy relatives, and for their sake he concentrated his
attention upon Italian politics, with inglorious results. His own life was
strict and simple, he built a foundling hospital and gave privileges to the
mendicant orders. He intervened in the affairs of the Spanish Inquisition,
trying to check the misuse of its powers in the interest of party politics or
royal authority. But Sixtus IV is chiefly remembered for his patronage of the
fine arts. He built the Sistine chapel in Rome, and favored great artists such
as Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, and Perugino. He weakly introduced unworthy persons
into the college of cardinals, and thereby prepared the way for the further
degradation of the papacy.
Innocent VIII (1484-1492) was a man whose morals were
the subject of a Roman jest. The great Sultan Muhammad II had died in 1481. His
sons Bayazid and Jem disputed for the throne. Bayazid proved the winner, and
committed his brother to the keeping of the Knights of St. John in Rhodes, the
Grand Master transferred him to the Pope, and Bayazid, in return for this
custody of his brother, promised the Pope perpetual peace and 40,00o ducats a
year.
Alexander VI (1492-1503) a nephew of Calixtus III,
purchased the papal throne by bribing his colleagues. His pontificate was one
of unequalled infamy. He threw decorum to the winds, and his only serious
interest was in his children. His favorite son, Giovanni, was murdered,
probably by his second son, Cesare: both were cardinals. The Pope's daughter
Lucrezia was left in charge of the 'apostolic palace' when the Pope was absent
from Rome. He intrigued with the sultan against the King of France, and in 1493
he presented Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain with all islands and continents
lying beyond a line of demarcation drawn from the North to the South Pole. Jem
the Turk was one of the Pope’s boon companions.
Of the seven pontiffs whose reign has been briefly
sketched above, there was not one, with the exception of Paul II, who had the
irreproachable character and the strength of will required in their high
position. Rome was dissolute and cruel, men conformed and disbelieved, and even
Italy was shocked by the court of Alexander VI, its simony, murders, and
indescribable vices.
In spite of the orgies of the Vatican, religion was
not dead in Italy. There were occasional feverish revivals in cities and
villages, gusts of penitence and attempts to propitiate God with fasts and
litanies and processions. Foremost in preaching these revivals were the friars
of the reformed mendicant orders. Of these we have as an example the work of
St. Bernardino (d. 1444). He was noted for his devotion to the holy name of
Jesus; and while believing in papal infallibility, he adhered to the view of
some of the Fathers that 'the rock' mentioned by Christ in his promise to St.
Peter, was Christ himself.
Above all the preachers of repentance was Girolamo
Savonarola, prior of the reformed Dominican convent of St. Mark, Florence.
There, and later in the vast and sombre Duomo of
Florence, he preached to multitudes with a fiery and lucid eloquence which
seemed a miracle in one so feeble and so overstrained. The people listened with
terror and sobbed aloud. He laid bare every abuse and every vice. He spoke like
a prophet; he saw farther than other men because he saw deeper. Convinced that
God's judgment would fall on Italy for her wickedness, he said that it would
come soon and that the Church would then be renewed. His spiritual dictatorship
began in 1490, when he set himself in opposition to Lorenzo de Medici, who, in
spite of his opposition, said that he was the only honest friar that he knew,
and sent for him when he was on his death-bed. Savonarola left him unabsolved,
and became the champion of republican doctrines in the pulpit. A wave of fierce
austerity came over Florence, laws were remodeled, many abolished, and in the
carnival of 1497 a huge bonfire was made of lascivious pictures, lutes, harps,
and cosmetics, which were burnt amid shouts of triumph. The same year Alexander
VI, whose vices he had lashed, and who had vainly tried to bribe him with a cardinal's
hat, excommunicated Savonarola. He had made many enemies, and in March 1498 the
Signory, the supreme executive of Florence, besought him to suspend his
preaching. Certain Franciscans provoked him to an ordeal by fire. Their own
champions withdrew from the trial and the ordeal never took place. The populace
were filled with rage, not against the Franciscans, but against Savonarola, who
was imprisoned and then tortured. On May the 23rd he was hanged, his body was
burnt, and his ashes were thrown into the Arno. His last words were: “The Lord
has suffered as much for me”.
Hardly had his ashes been borne away by the river,
when the fickle Florentines recognized that they had killed a prophet and a
saint, and Savonarola almost attained the dubious honor of being canonized by a
Pope of the period.
Alexander VI was followed by Pius III, who died within
a 41 month, and the two last Popes of the Renaissance were Julius II and Leo X.
Julius II (1503-1513) had little of the priest about
him. He was a lover of art and patronized Bramante, Raphael, and Michelangelo.
He was an able ruler and diplomat, but he was essentially a man of war, and was
said to have chosen the name Julius in memory of Julius Caesar. He beat Venice
with the help of France and Germany, and then with Venice and Spain drove the
French from Italy. Louis XII of France convened a French Council which renewed
the Pragmatic Sanction, and with the co-operation of Germany convened a General
Council at Pisa. The Pope put Pisa under an interdict, the Council was a
failure, and the Pope summoned another Council at the Lateran. It is reckoned
by Rome as the eighteenth Ecumenical Council. Only fifty-six bishops were
present, and among the few archbishops was Christopher Bainbridge, Archbishop
of York, who was poisoned and found a burial-place in Rome. A concordat was
made with the Emperor Maximilian and some serious grievances in Germany were
redressed.
Leo X (1513-45z I), son of Lorenzo de Medici, was the
last and greatest of the Popes of the Renaissance. Like his predecessor, he was
an enthusiastic patron of art, and he furthered the erection of St. Peter's
which had been begun by Julius II and was destined to cost Rome the price of
the Reformation. His dealings with France were of political and ecclesiastical
importance. Louis XII, who was hard pressed by Henry VIII of England, had
decided to recognize the recent Lateran Council. His successor, Francis I,
gained a brilliant victory over the Swiss at Marignano, securing the great
duchy of Milan for himself. Rome was in a state of consternation when the news
of this victory arrived, and Leo was obliged to make a treaty with the victor.
The Pope succeeded in obtaining an abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction of
Bourges of AD 1438, which had proclaimed the 'conciliar theory' of Church
government. But in return the right of the king to nominate to the eighty-three
sees of France and five hundred and twenty-seven abbacies was assured, the Pope
reserving the power of confirming the elections. The arrangement was ratified
in the bull Primitiva ills ecclesia of 1516. It had the serious result of
widening the difference between the two classes of French ecclesiastics, the
rich and aristocratic higher clergy who depended upon the king, and the poorer
priests who represented the mind of the people and, to a considerable extent,
the spirit of the universities. The Pope took an interest in the welfare of the
great religious orders, but he was singularly blind to the need of reform in
the Church as a whole. Kindly and courtly, devoted to learning and equally
devoted to luxury, he was not an unbeliever. His moral weakness consisted in
his worldliness, his passion for getting and spending money and his inability
to realize 'the high calling of God'. His encounter with Luther falls outside
the scope of this volume.
When the French entered Italy, Italy began to conquer
France and bind her with silken cords. The French began to find Italy
delightful, and the French temperament began to change under this refining
influence. The secular spirit of the Renaissance attracted the wealthy classes,
ecclesiastical literature declined, elegant castles were more often built than
stately churches, and the patrons of art before long preferred mythological
nudities to representations of the saints.
Nevertheless, this humanism was more often allied in
France with Christian faith than it was in Italy. A desire for the reformation
of the Church by the Church was the ideal of some noble souls. Among them the
most influential was Lefevre d'Etaples, Faber Stapulensis, a native of Picardy (d. 1540). He was a doctor
of the Sorbonne and numbered among his pupils the Orientalists Vatable and
Postel, Bude, a man of vast learning, and Farel, who became a Protestant
leader. Among his works was a commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul written in
1512, and a critical work which maintained that there are in the New Testament
three different Maries who are combined in the current ecclesiastical tradition
concerning Mary Magdalene. He makes a strong moral appeal to return to Christ
and His apostles, and insists upon divine grace as the only means of salvation.
His influence was greatly strengthened by the support of a bishop and a
princess of the blood royal.
In 1516 William Briçonnet was nominated Bishop of
Meaux, and Meaux seemed likely to become the centre of reform without revolution. Briçonnet was enthusiastic, mystical, and
practical, and drew around him Lefèvre and a group known as the Group or Coenaculum of Meaux. Lefèvre composed a translation of the
New Testament, the bishop compelled priests to reside in their parishes, and
established thirty preaching stations to which he sent young men penetrated
with the new teaching. The king's sister, Margaret of Angouleme (d. 1549), put
herself into contact with the good men of Meaux. She was a hearer of Lefèvre
and corresponded with Briçonnet. She had imbibed the Platonism of Ficino and
Nicholas of Cusa, and she learned Latin, Italian, Spanish, Greek, and Hebrew.
More poetic than dogmatic, she has expressed her religious belief in her
verses. A gentle spirit, she cannot be called a creator of the moral and
intellectual life of her time: she reflected it; and there is a certain unity
in her religious ideas which suggests to us the point at which French reform
might have paused before becoming Protestant.
At the period of the Renaissance, Germany and
Flanders, which were in close political and social relations with each other,
were remarkable for the wealth and culture of their cities. Nuremberg,
Augsburg, and Mainz, Bruges, Ghent, and Louvain, to mention no others, were in
contact with the trade of a large part of Europe. The citizens built florid and
beautiful churches and town halls. Music was fostered, and artists such as the
Van Eycks, Roger van der Weyden, and Memling created
works in which realism and mysticism met together. The more strictly
intellectual life was not neglected. Although Germany produced few great
writers, it produced genuine thinkers, and the spirit of invention displayed
itself in the art of printing and in the progress of astronomy. No less than
nine universities were founded in Germany between 1456 and 1506, and almost
every city of importance possessed some resident scholar of distinction.
The godless character of the Italian Renaissance did
little to recommend its first representatives who arrived in Germany. But
humanism soon began to strike its roots into German soil, first in the Latin
schools, then in the universities. Its form was Christian and conservative.
Rudolf Agricola (d. 1485) trained in Louvain and Paris, was a man of light and
leading at Heidelberg, and his work was carried on at Deventer by Hegius and other disciples. The Universities of Erfurt,
Tubingen, and Ingolstadt quickly opened their doors to humanism. Nuremberg,
which was almost a German Florence, had a warm patron of the new learning in
the patrician citizen Pirkheimer. He and others like Wimpheling,
the scholar of Speier, and Trithemius, the
Benedictine abbot, never left the Church in which they had been reared; nor did
Ulrich von Hutten, the knight-errant of the revival of letters, who fought with
sword and with pen, and died in poverty on an island in the lake of Zurich. But
they helped to make Germany stir with an intellectual life which foreshadowed a
change in religion.
The greatest German humanist at the beginning of the
sixteenth century was Johann Reuchlin (d. 1522), a man of learning and the
pioneer of Hebrew studies. He became, without intending it, the cause of a
controversy which enlisted the greater part of Germany in a revolt against the
Church. In 1509 a converted Jew, Johann Pfefferkorn, obtained an edict from
Maximilian empowering him to confiscate Hebrew books on the ground that they
hindered Jews from embracing the Christian faith. Reuchlin was one of the referees
appointed to report to the emperor as to whether all Hebrew books, except the
Old Testament, ought to be burnt. He produced a discriminating memoir in which
he advised that, with the exception of two books, the Jews' books should not be
burnt, that Hebrew literature should be studied and the Jews gently brought
over to the faith. A sharp controversy ensued between Pfefferkorn and Reuchlin;
the latter appealed to the Pope and he was acquitted of heresy by a commission
which met at Speier in 1514. But behind Pfefferkorn were the Dominicans of
Cologne and the inquisitor Hoogstraten, and their
power at Rome was such that Pope Leo X issued a mandate which imposed silence
on both parties and quashed the decision of Speier. The bigots therefore
gained a semi-success and a semi-condemnation at Rome; but they suffered a
severe defeat in Germany. Reuchlin had met his opponents by publishing a volume
of letters addressed to him by his learned admirers under the title of Clarorum Virorum Epistolae. This suggested to the wits of the new learning
the idea of ridiculing the theologians by a collection of letters called Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum. They were composed in the circle of Mutianus Rufus, canon of Gotha. Written in a parody of
monkish Latin, and sometimes as coarse as they were flippant, they were greeted
with ecstatic applause and caused monastic learning to be treated as a farce.
But the strength of northern humanism was not in the
humorists but in Desiderius Erasmus (d. 1536). He has fitly been called 'the
king of the humanists', and he used his learning in the service of Church
reform. He had been educated by the Brothers of the Common Life in Holland, he
had entered a monastery in 1491, but was relieved from monastic rules by the
Bishop of Cambrai, and he visited England in 1497. He travelled in order to
study, and was familiar with Paris and Rome, Bologna and Florence. He corrected
the press for Aldus at Venice; he learned Greek at Oxford and taught it at
Cambridge; and later he settled at Basel. No one of his period, and no one
since his period, enjoyed so great a literary reputation. His Praise of Folly,
his Adages, and his Colloquies had an immense circulation, his spontaneous and
satirical Latin being of unrivalled vigour. His
services to theology were as great as his services to the classical revival. In
1505 he republished the notes on the New Testament by Lorenzo Valla. In 1516 he
published the New Testament in Greek with a Latin version, and he superintended
the publication of the writings of several Fathers of the Church. He has been
called indifferent in matters of religion; but the charge cannot be sustained.
He remained in the Church, righteously discontented but not rebellious, hoping
that reform would come with a study of the unadulterated records of early
Christianity. His mind was too implacable towards the Schoolmen, and his ardor
for doctrinal simplicity was not compatible with an appreciation of philosophy.
But Erasmus remains in the first rank of the men who have aspired to unite
reasonableness with religion, culture with Christianity.
The Englishmen John Colet and Sir Thomas More are more
than worthy to be placed beside Reuchlin and Erasmus. Their enthusiasm for the
new learning was united with Catholic devotion, unsullied by cynicism or
disloyalty.
John Colet, Dean of St. Paul's, was born in London in
or near 1467. He was the son of Sir Henry Colet, who was twice Lord Mayor of
London, and he was educated in Oxford.
After he had taken the degree of Master of Arts he
enlarged his mind by visiting Paris and Italy, where he first met Erasmus. He
returned to England, was ordained priest, and resided in Oxford, where he gave
Latin lectures on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. They attracted much
attention, being free from scholastic methods of exegesis and colored with the
Platonism of Ficino and Pico della Mirandola. This
taste for Platonism was allied with his respect for the works attributed to
Dionysius the Areopagite, under the influence of which he wrote a book on the
Sacraments of the Church and another on the Composition of the Holy Mystical
Body of Christ. He afterwards became convinced, like all modern scholars, that
the so-called Dionysian writings are not works of primitive antiquity, but they
strengthened his desire for ecclesiastical reform. He also wrote letters on the
six days of creation, in which he interpreted the first chapters of Genesis as
allegorical, an interpretation which is not absent from the writings of certain
Fathers, including even Athanasius.
He was made Dean of St. Paul's in 1505 and continued
to lecture on the New Testament. The wealth which he inherited from his father
now enabled him to carry out his darling project, the foundation of a great
school for the free teaching of one hundred and fifty-three poor children. The
building was completed in 1510 and named St. Paul's School. Fitzjames,
the Bishop of London, was suspicious of his teaching and his educational
methods, and cited him for heresy before Archbishop Warham, who dismissed the
charge. He continued to be quite outspoken in criticizing abuses in Church and
State. In 1512, when preaching before Convocation, he eloquently deplored the
evil of the Church being conformed to the world, and the next year denounced
the evils of war in a sermon before Henry VIII. In 1514 he visited the shrine
of St. Thomas of Canterbury in company with Erasmus, who describes his
companion under the name of Gratianus Pullus, and represents him as having
little respect for musty relics. That year he prepared to retire among the
Carthusians of Sheen. Worn out by the sweating sickness he died in 1519. In
simplicity of life he practiced what he preached. Neither a great scholar nor a
great theologian, he was a great Christian who passionately desired to make the
Bible understood, and saw the importance of studying the Christianity of early
days.
Sir Thomas More (1478-1535), Lord Chancellor of
England, was one of the greatest representatives of this period of transition
and was in a special sense its martyr. Like Colet, he was a Londoner by birth
and an Oxonian by education. At the age of twenty-one he was, like many other
young men, filled with an ascetic fervor which prompted him to become a priest;
but he decided otherwise without abandoning his strong Christian faith. He
lectured on St. Augustine at St. Lawrence Jewry in the City, and powerfully
advocated the study of Greek. In 1516 he published his Utopia, the picture of
an ideal commonwealth, implying a criticism of the evils of the day, and a plea
for the widest toleration in matters of religion. Brilliant and upright as a
lawyer, he steadily advanced in his profession; he became Speaker of the House
of Commons, and in 1529 Lord Chancellor. Henry VIII was fully conscious of his
attractive character and rare ability, and professed for More a friendship
which More perceived to be inspired by cunning rather than affection. He
assisted the king in his book against Luther, and himself sternly enforced the
laws against heretics in spite of the views advocated in Utopia. He regarded
the Pope's jurisdiction, which was interwoven with the canon law, as essential
to the Catholic system, and he therefore came into conflict with the king when
Henry married Anne Boleyn. He refused to attend the wedding. He refused to take
the oath which required fidelity to Anne's issue, and he would not renounce the
Pope. He was committed to the Tower, where he wrote a beautiful Dialogue of
Comfort against Tribulation. Charged with high treason, he refused to accept
the Act of Supremacy, and he was beheaded on Tower Hill on July the 6th, 1535,
after telling the people that he died 'in and for the faith of the Catholic
Church'.
There is a touch of paradox in the fact that the
memory of a man so keen in advocating practical reforms is linked with the word
utopian, which has entered into the English language to describe political
ideas which are too optimistic to be practicable. His Christian courage remains
as a virtue to be admired and imitated in every age.
At the beginning of the sixteenth century the Church
remained still powerful and majestic. It was not merely something that appealed
to Schoolmen and theologians. It was throughout western and central Europe the
only possible Church. The one country which might be called Protestant was
Bohemia, and Bohemia was torn with strife within and without. Though the Papacy
had become more political than religious, and more commercial than political,
we must remember that by this time the conception of a papacy uncontaminated by
nepotism and rapacity was virtually extinct in the minds of the people. The
Church was the mother and guide of mankind, and the mismanagement of her
affairs had not very widely shaken confidence in her authority. The clergy and
the monks touched every class of society, and numerous new churches and
charitable institutions proved how closely the life of the people was linked
with the observances of religion. Small reforms, chiefly affecting the
religious orders, had been carried out with good results. But attempts to
reform the Popes and papal government had proved feeble and futile, and
ordinary people were not stirred by the learned doctors who wished for a
constitutional limitation of papal jurisdiction. A new religious idea of
overwhelming strength, intelligible to the masses, was needed if a radical
change was to be effected, an idea which would gather around it something from
all the social and intellectual movements of the time. That idea was manifested
in Luther's presentation of St. Paul's doctrine of faith in Christ.
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