THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE
250 BC-228 AD
During the reign of the Seleucid king Antiochus II,
Diodotus, viceroy of Bactria, seizes the northeastern provinces and assumes the
title of king. The formation of this kingdom is not agreeable to the chiefs of
the desert tribes who, under the Seleucid rule, have never felt direct control,
and some of them migrate into Parthia. Among them are two brothers, Arsaces and
Tiridates, of the Parnians. In a quarrel which arises between them and
Pherecles, presumably satrap of Astauene, the latter is slain and Arsaces
is proclaimed king in Asaak, northwest of Parthia.
250
Foundation of an independent monarchy by Arsaces I.
Antiochus, on account of civil and foreign wars, is unable to proceed against
Arsaces.
The sources regarding Arsaces' life differ greatly. He
is mostly known from Greek and Roman sources, who were hostile to him and his
dynasty due to the later Roman–Parthian Wars. In Iranian national
history his descent is traced back to several mythical figures, such as being a
descendant of either Kay Kawad, Kay Arash, Dara the son of Homay, or Arash,
the heroic archer-figure. The affiliation of Arsaces with Arash is due to the
resemblance in their names and Arsaces' coins imitating him as a bowman. According
to Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, Arsaces was a bandit of
low birth, who invaded and conquered Parthia, killing its satrap Andragoras,
who had recently declared independence from the Hellenistic Seleucid
Empire.
The most accepted theory is the one by the Greek
geographer Strabo: according to him, Arsaces was a Scythian or
a Bactrian chieftain, who became the leader of the Parni, one of
the three tribes of the Dahae confederacy of Central Asia. The
Dahae relied their strength completely on horseback, and thus possessed an
extremely mobile force, which was able to retreat to the south of the Aral
Sea when endangered. Because of this, other empires met complications
in their efforts trying to control them.
The Dahae had originally lived between the Jaxartes in
the 4th-century BC, but gradually moved southward, possibly in the early
3rd-century BC. They first migrated southeast to Bactria, but were driven
away, and as a result changed their course to the west. They gradually
started settling in Parthia, a region in the south-eastern part of the Caspian
Sea, that almost corresponded to present-day Khorasan Province of
Iran and southern Turkmenistan. The region was then under the rule of
the Seleucids. By 282/1 BC, Parthia was under considerable Parni
influence. The Parni were not the only to migrate to Parthia, as the
region was constantly receiving new waves of Iranian migrants from the north.
The Parni were an eastern Iranian tribe, who practised Iranian polytheism. By the middle of
the 3rd-century BC, however, they had been assimilated into the local Parthian
culture; they adopted Parthian, a north-western Iranian language, and
became adherents of the Zoroastrianism religion, even giving
themselves Zoroastrian names, such as Arsaces' father, Phriapites,
whose name was derived from Avestan Friya pitā ("father-lover"). Arsaces
himself was probably born and raised in Parthia, speaking the Parthian
language. According to the French historian Jérôme Gaslain, Arsaces could have arguably spent much of his life
in the Seleucid lands, and may even have belonged to the local elite of
Parthia.
The Dahae frequently served as horse archers in the
armies of Greek rulers, from the Macedonian Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC) to
the Seleucid Antiochus III the Great (c. 222–187 BC). This
implies that Arsaces, who is described as an "experienced soldier" in
classical records, may have served as a mercenary under the Seleucid rulers or
their governors.
In c. 250 BC, Arsaces and his Parni followers
seized Astauene, which lay near the Atrek valley. A few years later, probably in c.
247 BC, Arsaces was crowned king in Asaak, a
city which he had founded, and which served as the Arsacid royal necropolis. His
coronation at Asaak is generally presumed to mark the
start of the Arsacid dynasty. Around 245 BC, Andragoras, the governor
of the Seleucid province of Parthia, proclaimed his independence from the
Seleucid monarch Seleucus II Callinicus (c. 246 – 225
BC), and made his governorate an independent kingdom. Following the
secession of Parthia from the Seleucid Empire and the resultant loss of
Seleucid military support, Andragoras had difficulty in maintaining his
borders, and about 238 BC—under the command of Arsaces and his
brother Tiridates I the Parni invaded Parthia and seized control
of Astabene (Astawa) from
Andragoras, the northern region of that territory, the administrative capital
of which was Kuchan.
A short while later, the Parni seized the rest of
Parthia from Andragoras, killing him in the process. With the conquest of the
province, the Arsacids became known as Parthians in Greek and Roman sources. This
term has likewise been in regular use by modern western authors as well,
however, according to the modern historian Stefan R. Hauser, it "should be
abandoned as it conveys an incorrect idea of an ethnic ruling class within the
multiethnic, multilingual population". The neighbouring province of Hyrcania was shortly conquered by the Parni as well. A
recovery expedition by the Seleucids under Seleucus II was made in 228 BC,
which proved problematic for Arsaces, who was at the same time at war with
the Greco-Bactrian ruler Diodotus II (c. 239 – 220 BC). In order to avoid fighting on two fronts,
Arsaces quickly concluded a peace treaty with Diodotus II.
Nevertheless, he was unable to stop the Seleucid
expedition and was forced to leave Parthia for Central Asia, where he took
refuge with the Apasiacae. The Seleucid
conquest proved to be short-lived; due to issues in the western portions of the
Seleucid Empire, Seleucus II was forced to leave Parthia, which gave Arsaces
the opportunity to regain his lost territories, and most likely also expand his
dominion further south. Indeed, Arsaces’ withdrawal to the Apasiacae was perhaps a strategic move, since Seleucus II neither possessed the resources
to chase him nor the time to conclude a peace treaty. Arsaces also made an
alliance with the Greco-Bactrians, which confirms that contact between the
two powers had most likely been established long ago. According to the
Roman historian Justin, Arsaces "settled the Parthian government,
levied soldiers, built fortresses, and strengthened his towns." Apart
from Asaak, he also founded the city of Dara in Mount Zapaortenon, a place in Parthia. Nisa, likewise
founded by Arsaces, would be then used as the royal residence of the Arsacids
till the 1st-century BC.
248
Arsaces II succeeded his father Arsaces I in 217 BC. In 209 BC, the energetic Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great recaptured Parthia, which had been previously seized from Andragoras by Arsaces I and the Parni around 238 BC. Arsaces II sued for peace following his defeat in the Battle of Mount Labus. Prior to this, Antiochus had already occupied the Parthian capital at Hecatompylos, pushing forward to Tagae near Damghan. Following the defeat of Arsaces II at Mount Labus, Antiochus turned westwards into Hyrcania where he occupied Tambrax. The heavily barricaded city of Syrinx was then taken by siege.[1]In the terms of the peace, Arsaces accepted feudatory status and from then onwards ruled Parthia and Hyrcani as a vassal state of the Seleucids. Antiochus in turn withdrew his troops westwards, where he would subsequently be embroiled in wars with Rome and so would leave the fledgling Parthian kingdom to its own devices. Arsaces II was succeeded by his relative Priapatius in 191 BC. .
242
After defeat of Seleucus Callinicus at Ancyra,
Tiridates invades Parthia, slays the eparch Andragores, and takes possession of
the province. He next seizes Hyrcania, and causes a large army to oppose
Seleucus.
238
Decisive victory of Tiridates over Seleucus. The
latter is obliged to return to Antioch on account of civil war, and Tiridates
is enabled to consolidate his kingdom.
211
Death of Tiridates. His son, Arsaces II, sometimes,
but incorrectly, called Artabanus, succeeds.
209
Antiochus the Great wins a victory over Arsaces on the
summit of Mount Labus. The Parthians retire to Sirynca and are besieged by
Antiochus. Surrender of Sirynca, and treaty of peace. Arsaces retains Parthia,
but is reduced to a vassal of Antiochus. Parthia remains undisturbed for some
years.
191
Phriapatius or Arsaces (III) Philadelphus succeeds his
father. Owing to the decay of Seleucid power, he acts as protector of the
Greeks in his kingdom.
176
Phraates I or Arsaces (IV) Theopator succeeds his
father. He conquers the Mardians.
171
Phraates dies, leaving the throne to his brother,
Mithridates I or Arsaces (V) Epiphanes, who at once annexes several satrapies
of Bactria to his kingdom. He holds court in Hyrcania.
155
At death of King Eucratides of Bactria, Mithridates
continues the conquest of that country. The Hindu Kush becomes the eastern
boundary of Parthia. Mithridates turns to the west.
147 The province of Babylonia is wrested from the
Seleucids. The East is finally lost to the Macedonians.
139
Capture of Demetrius II of Syria, who has attempted to
establish himself in Mesopotamia.
138
Successful campaign in Elymais. Death of Mithridates.
He has made Parthia a great power. His son, Phraates II or Arsaces (VI)
Euergetes, succeeds. He adds Margiana to the kingdom. The seat of the kingdom
is transferred to Media.
130
Antiochus Sidetes begins a vigorous campaign against
the Parthians, whom he defeats in a great battle on the Upper Zab. Babylon and
Ecbatana are recovered.
129
The Parthians make secret terms with the Medes and
attack Antiochus, whose host is annihilated and he himself slain. Phraates
compelled to attack the Scythians, whom he had invited to assist him against
Antiochus. They have arrived too late, and, as Phraates refuses to pay them,
they begin to ravage the country.
128
Death of Phraates in a disastrous battle with the
Scythians. His uncle, Artabanus I or Arsaces (VII) Nicator, son of Phriapatius,
succeeds. The Scythians withdraw, content with their victory; Artabanus pays
them tribute. There appear to have been rival kings in this and the following
reign. Perhaps they are Scythians. The usurpers are suppressed. Artabanus dies
(date unknown), after a short reign, in battle with the Tochari, and is
succeeded by his son, Mithridates (II) the Great or Arsaces (VIII) Theos Euergetes.
He wages many wars, and wins victories from the Scythians. Lost territory is
recovered. The Euphrates is fixed as the western boundary of the kingdom.
94
Mithridates puts Tigranes II on the disputed throne of
Greater Armenia.
92
Sulla, proprietor of Cilicia, meets the ambassador of
Mithridates on the Euphrates, seeking the Roman alliance in some connection
with the Parthian schemes against Syria. First contact of Parthia with Rome.
Mithridates at war with Laodice, queen of Commagene.
88
About this date Mithridates captures Demetrius III and
his army, dies shortly afterwards, and is succeeded by Artabanus II or Arsaces
IX. He is the last to bear title “king of kings,” which passes to Tigranes II
of Armenia.
77
Sinatruces or Arsaces (X) Autocrator, an exile living
with the Scythian tribe of the Sacarances, is placed on the throne at the age
of eighty. Continual wars with Tigranes, who conquers Media, ravages Arbela and
Nineveh, and compels the cession of Adiabene and Nisibis.
13
Mithridates of Pontus appeals in vain to both
Sinatruces and Tigranes for help against
70
Phraates III succeeds his father.
69
Phraates declines to help Mithridates of Pontus, whom
Tigranes has joined. Tigranes offers to restore his Median conquests to
Phraates if he will assist. Phraates hesitates, but
66 accepts overtures of Pompey, and, with the younger
Tigranes, who has quarrelled with his father, prepares to invade Armenia.
Phraates besieges Artaxarta, but leaves the younger Tigranes to continue.
Defeat of Tigranes by his father. The former flees to Pompey. The elder
Tigranes surrenders to Pompey, and the younger is put in chains. Phraates
demands Tigranes’ deliverance, but it is refused. Phraates recovers Media and
resumes title “king of kings.”
64
While Pompey is in Syria, Phraates attacks and defeats
the elder Tigranes. Pompey refuses to interfere, but sends umpires to settle
the dispute.
57
Murder of Phraates by his two sons, who divide the
kingdom. Orodes or Hyrodes I takes Parthia, and Mithridates III takes Media.
The latter is soon expelled for his cruelty, and Orodes reigns alone.
Mithridates expects the Romans to restore him, but they are compelled to go to
Egypt to restore Ptolemy XI.
55
He attacks Orodes alone, who flees, but with the help
of Surenas,
54
captures Mithridates in Babylon and puts him to death.
Crassus takes advantage of this civil strife to invade Parthia.
53 Great defeat of the Romans at Carrhse by Surenas.
Orodes makes peace with Armenia. He puts Surenas to death through jealousy.
52 Unsuccessful Parthian invasion of Syria.
51 Cassius defeats the Parthians at Antigonia.
50 The satrap of Mesopotamia raises a revolt in favour
of Pacorus, son of Orodes. Paco- rus is recalled by Orodes and Syria is
evacuated. Orodes associates Pacorus with him on the throne.
After the battle of Philippi, Labienus, who has been
sent from Rome to obtain help from Orodes, advises him to seize Syria.
40
Pacorus, Labienus, and a large army attack Syria,
which falls into Parthian hands. All the Phoenician cities except Tyre submit.
The Parthians appear in Palestine and the country rises against Herod and
Phasael. Hyrcanus deposed and Antigonus substituted. The cities of Asia Minor
except Stratonicea open their gates to Labienus.
39
Ventidius, Antony’s general, drives Labienus from Asia
Minor. Capture and execution of Labienus.
38
Complete rout of the Parthians and death of Pacorus at
battle of Cyrrhestica. The Parthians evacuate Syria.
37
Orodes, in grief at Pacorus’ loss, resigns crown to
his son Phraates IV. He at once murders his brothers and then his father, his
own son, and all possible claimants of the throne. He removes the capital to
Ctesiphon. Many of the nobles flee to Antony, who plans a war against Parthia.
36
Antony appears in Atropatene and besieges the capital.
The expedition proves a failure.
33-32
Rebellion against Phraates, culminating in an unknown
usurper taking the throne. He is succeeded in a few months by Tiridates II.
30
After battle of
Actium, which draws the Roman troops from Media, and Parthia, the Parthians
seize Media and Armenia and put Artaxes II on the Armenian throne. Phraates
regains his kingdom for a short time. Tiridates flees to Syria, where he is
protected by Octavian.
27-26
Tiridates, with
the help of the Arabs, surprises Phraates and compels him to flee. Phraates
finally persuades the Scythians to help him and Phraates is reinstated.
Tiridates flees to Augustus, carrying Phraates’ younger sou with him.
23
Augustus restores Phraates’ son to him. Civil-war
rages in Parthia.
20
Augustus visits the East. Phraates, in fear, returns
Roman captives and the ensigns taken from Crassus and Antony, to Augustus.
10
Phraates sends his family to Rome in order to remove
causes of civil strife, keeping only his favourite wife Urania, an Italian
slave girl presented by Augustus, and her child Phraates or Phraataces.
2
About this date Urania and Phraates V (or Phraataces)
murder Phraates IV. Phraataces expels Artavasdes III from Armenia and puts
Tigranes IV on the throne. He also, deposes Ariobarzanes II of Atropatene
(Media), who was established on that throne by Augustus about 10 b.c. A line of
Parthian princes succeed in Atropatene.
1
Augustus makes terms with Phraates, who resigns all
Aaims on Armenia and sends his sons to Rome as hostages.
A.D.
2-4-9
Phraataces marries his mother, in consequence of
which he is deposed and takes refuge in Rome. The Parthians bring back an
exiled prince, Orodes II, and make him king. He proves a cruel ruler, and for
this reason about is murdered. The Parthians apply to Rome and receive Vonones
I, eldest son of Phraates IV, as their king. His long residence in Rome and
foreign sympathies make him unpopular in Parthia, and
11
Artabanus III, an Arsacid on his mother’s side and who
had been king of Media (Atropatene), is set up as a pretender. He is
unsuccessful at first, but finally defeats Vonones at Ctesiphon. The latter
flees and is chosen king of Armenia in 16. Tiberius persuades him to give up
this throne.
19-35
After death of Germanicus, Artabanus begins to treat
the Romans with contempt, and places his son Arsaces on the throne of Armenia.
He makes so severe a ruler that the Parthians apply to Tiberius, who finds
himself compelled to interfere. He induces Pharasmanes, king of Iberia, to put
forward his brother Mithridates as a claimant to the Armenian throne. War
results.
36
A widespread revolt instigated by Tiberius puts
Tiridates, grandson of Phraates IV, on the throne and Artabanus flees.
37
Artabanus comes to terms with Rome and is restored.
40-41
Death of Artabanus. His son Vardanes succeeds, but is
deposed by Gotarzes, chief official of Artabanus.
42
Vardanes recovers throne, owing to Gotarzes’
cruelties. Civil war results.
43
Vardanes captures Seleucia, and Gotarzes retires to
Hyrcania.
45
Gotarzes makes unsuccessful attempt to regain throne.
46
Vardanes murdered while hunting. Gotarzes again takes
throne.
47
On account of Gotarzes’ misrule, the Parthians ask
Claudius to give them Meherdates (Mithridates V) son of Vonones as king.
50
Gotarzes captures Meherdates on his way to Parthia.
51
Death of Gotarzes succeeded by Vonones II, formerly
king of Media and probably brother of Artabanus III.
54
Death of Vonones succeeded by his eldest son,
Vologases I, who is the son of a concubine; but to compensate his brothers,
Vologases puts Pacorus on the throne of Media and Tiridates on that of Armenia
— having deposed Radaniistus the usurper from the latter country. A son of
Vardanes contests the throne with Vologases and apparently has the upper hand
for a while.
55
The Romans compel the Parthians to evacuate Armenia.
58 V
ologases again attacks Armenia and brings on war with
Rome. Revolt of Hyrcania. Corbulo destroys Artaxarta and occupies Tigranocerta
(59).
61
Peace restored in Hyrcania.
62
War with Rome resumed. The Romans are repulsed.
63
Corbulo crosses the Euphrates, and the Parthians sue
for peace.
72
The Alani drive Pacorus of Media from his throne.
75
The Alani enter Parthia. Vologases appeals in vain to
Vespasian.
78 About this date Vologases dies. He seems to have
been succeeded by two kings, Vologases II and Pacorus II, probably brothers,
and reigning together.
81
Artabanus IV appears to be the king in this year. He
protects Terentius Maximus, who pretends to be Nero. Parthia is torn with civil
wars.
93 Pacorus II is sole king.
110-113
Pacorus sells the crown of Edessa to Abgar VII. Death
of Pacorus. His brother (or perhaps son) Chosroes or Osroes succeeds. Vologases
II reappears as a rival king, also a Mithridates or Meherdates VI. Parthia is
completely upset with civil war which goes on until Chosroes wrests Armenia
from King Exedares and gives it to Parthamariris, both sons of Pacorus.
114
The emperor Trajan, indignant at Chosroes’ act, seizes
Armenia and makes it a Roman province.
115
Trajan takes Ctesiphon and Seleucia.
116
Revolt in Parthia with Mithridates VI at its head.
Death of Mithridates, and his son Sinatruces takes his place. Chosroes regains
Nisib is, Seleucia, and Edessa.
117
Trajan crowns Parthamaspates king of Parthia, deposing
Chosroes. Death of Trajan. Hadrian withdraws Roman soldiers and Chosroes
recovers throne. Parthamaspates expelled.
130
About this date Chosroes dies and Vologases II rules
as sole king. The influence of Rome preserves peace in the kingdom.
148
Death of Vologases, aged ninety-six,- having reigned
seventy-one years. Vologases IH succeeds. He continues the peace with Rome
until,
162
when, after death of Antoninus Pius, Vologases enters
Armenia and expels the king. The greatest war between Rome and Parthia ensues.
164
Aridius Cassius drives Vologases from Syria, enters
Babylonia, and burns Seleucia, the most important city of the East.
165
Great plague, originating in Parthia, spreads over the
whole world.
166
Peace with Rome. Mesopotamia becomes a Roman province.
Parthia begins steadily to decline.
191
Death of Vologases III. Vologases IV succeeds.
194
Vologases permits the Medes to assist Orrhcene in
revolt against the Romans.
196
The Parthians ravage Mesopotamia.
199
Severus surprises the Parthians and takes Seleucia,
Coehe, and Ctesiphon.
201
Siege of Atra by Severus, who is compelled to raise
it.
209
Vologases succeeded by his son, Vologases V.
213
His brother, Artabanus (IV), appears as a claimant of
the throne. Civil war.
215
Caracalla demands the surrender of Tiridates, brother
of Vologases IV, who has taken refuge with Vologases V. The latter refuses to
give him' up. Caracalla declares war, and the exile is delivered up. Artabanus
gains the upper hand and holds Ctesiphon. Caracalla declares war on Artabanus
on the latter’s refusal to give his daughter to the Roman emperor.
216
The Romans penetrate to Arbela.
217
On death of Caracalla an immense Parthian force
invades Mesopotamia. Macrinus efeated and purchases peace.
222
Artabanus replaces his brother over the whole of
Parthia.
224
Ardashir, the Sassanian king of Persis (or Persia),
invades Parthia, taking several cities.
227
Battle of Hormizdjan. Victory of Ardashir and death of
Artabanus.
228 Ardashir completes his conquest. End of the
Parthian empire.
