READING HALL THE DOORS OF WISDOM

HISTORY OF THE POPES FROM THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

PAUL V. (1605-1621)

CHAPTER II.

Antecedents, Character and Environment of Paul V.The Borghese.

The Borghese family had its origin in Siena, where its members had distinguished themselves from the second half of the thirteenth century as municipal officials, envoys, military leaders and especially as lawyers. Agostino Borghese had been entrusted with missions to Venice, to Rome and to the Emperor Sigismund, from whom he received a knighthood and the right to bear an eagle in the family arms; Pius II raised him to the rank of a Count. Galgano Borghese represented Siena in Rome at the end of the pontificate of Nicholas V and went as envoy to Naples in 1456.

Several Borghese held offices in the States of the Church. Under Leo X one of the family, called Pietro, was a senator in Rome. Giambattista Borghese under Clement VII took part in the defence of Rome against the troops of Charles V. Nicolo Borghese wrote a life of St. Catharine of Siena, who was said to be a relation of the family. But the greatness of the house of Borghese only began with the famous jurist Marcantonio, who moved to Rome about the middle of the sixteenth century. He was moved to take this step on account of the warlike disturbances in which his native city lost its freedom. Like a good son, he arranged for his mother and sister to join him in Rome in 1554. There he acquired the highest reputation in the service of eight Popes and ultimately became dean of the consistorial advocates. Under Paul IV he defended Cardinal Morone in his trial before the Inquisition. He died in 1574 and was buried in Santissima Trinita dei Monti.

By his marriage with Flaminia Astalli, who belonged to an ancient Roman family, Marcantonio Borghese had five sons (Girolamo, Orazio, Camillo, Giovanni Battista and Francesco) and two daughters, one of whom married into the family of the Caffarelli, the other into that of the Vittori.

Camillo Borghese, born in Rome on September 17th, 1552, received from his pious mother a careful and thoroughly religious education. At first, as his father had done, he devoted himself to the study of law. For this purpose he attended the university of Perugia, where he was a model student. He returned to Rome with a doctor’s degree, became a priest, and then went through the usual career of a prelate. After being at first assistant, then successor to his father as consistorial advocate, he soon became an assessor of both Segnatura’s and later a chaplain of St. Mary Major’s. In 1588 Sixtus V sent him as vice-legate to Bologna, where he acted for five years as Cardinal Montalto’s deputy and distinguished himself in a difficult position as much as in his previous career. In 1590 his brother Orazio, for whom his father had bought a post as auditor of the Camera for 70,000 scudi, died. The premature death of Orazio was a great blow for the Borghese family, since, according to law, the vacant post should have reverted to the Camera Apostolica; but Cardinal Montalto persuaded Gregory XIV to allow Camillo to acquire it on very favourable terms.

In Rome under Clement VIII, Camillo Borghese quickly revealed himself as one of the most prominent, pious and capable prelates of the Curia, and he soon won the confidence of the Pope. There was no great surprise when in 1593 he was appointed envoy extraordinary to Philip II. The admirable way in which he fulfilled his mission made his promotion certain. On June 15th, 1596, Clement VIII conferred on him the purple. From 1597 to 1599 Camillo was bishop of Iesi. When Cardinal Rusticucci died in June, 1603, Clement VIII appointed Borghese vicar of Rome. He discharged this office with great prudence. The Cardinal also became a member of the Roman Inquisition and Protector of Scotland. His dispassionateness in connection with the English disputes was the subject of praise.

Like his father, Cardinal Camillo preserved great impartiality in the midst of political currents; he lived quietly, devoted only to the duties of his ecclesiastical offices and to his study of canon law, without involving himself in party schemes. As a result of his legation in Spain, he had many friends in that country; with the Pope’s permission he received an annual pension from Philip III, but this did not make him a partisan of Spain.

The Venetian ambassador Paruta in his reports testifies to the high esteem in which Cardinal Borghese was held as early as 1598. He was regarded as a scholar, and it was already thought that as the result of his notable qualities and lack of enemies he might attain to the tiara. The Spanish council of state, which was opposed to young Cardinals on principle, considered in 1601 that Borghese was the most eminent of them. Girolamo Fraschetta on the other hand did not consider him a genius, though, in a memorial composed for the Spanish ambassador, the Duke of Escalona, he praised his knowledge of canon law, his irreproachable life and his gentle disposition. When the conclave met after the death of Clement VIII, it was thought that he stood a good chance, as he was much liked both within and without the Sacred College, and was a man of outstanding ability. Later, when on the death of Leo XI he was in the front rank, the diplomats were especially appreciative of his knowledge of canon law, though some doubted if he possessed the qualities requisite for governing. It was thought, wrote the Duke of Urbino’s representative, that he would make a good rather than a great Pope.

Paul V was tall, his heavy body was inclined to stoutness, and it was apparent that he was short-sighted. In accordance with the custom of the period he had a small beard and pointed moustache. His face showed hard but very regular lines. All his contemporaries admired the nobility of his appearance. His whole deportment was restrained, dignified as became his high rank. It was related in Rome that the Pope had made such an impression upon an Englishman as to induce him to abjure his religious errors forthwith. Many busts, statues, oil paintings and engravings have preserved the likeness of Paul V. Among the most celebrated busts is one in marble by Bernini which adorns the Borghese Gallery.

Paul V enjoyed extremely good health. Throughout his life he had never been seriously ill. In order to preserve his health, he was assiduous in taking exercise, even when Pope.

The Pope had a calm and reflective temperament; he was a man of few words, though he was ever genial and affable as well as frank and candid. Extremely hard-working, he had always lived for duty alone. His knowledge of the Roman Curia was exhaustive, but of foreign countries he only knew Spain. He had held aloof from high politics; if as Pope he succeeded in entering this sphere, he never became a politician properly so called. His moral conduct was always exemplary and above the least suspicion; it was generally believed that he had preserved his baptismal innocence. He rivalled Pius V in piety. He said Mass every day; having first made his confession. When celebrating he was the personification, it was said, of the ideal of the priesthood. He prayed much and with the greatest devotion; he never let an hour of the day pass without invoking God. He also had a fervent devotion to Mary and the Saints. His favourite meditation was the one on death. His love of spiritual treatises is attested by the large number which he kept in his bedroom. Also characteristic of the thoroughly religious bent of Paul V is the fact that, except for a few poems and Justus Lipsius’ edition of Seneca, the works dedicated to him dealt almost exclusively with ecclesiastical matters. It should not be inferred, however, that the Borghese Pope was indifferent to learning; the contrary is shown by his care for the Vatican Library and for the continuation of the building of the Roman University. But, for him, ecclesiastical interests were pre-eminent, so that the promotion of secular sciences was quite a secondary consideration. Practical considerations inspired the promotion of the study of Oriental languages, the printing of religious books in Arabic and the foundation of special new secret archives for the Holy See, a measure by which Paul V has put historians under an immense obligation to him.

The pre-eminence of ecclesiastical interests for Paul V appeared also in his indefatigable participation in public religious functions. In the Corpus Christi procession, in which, when at all possible, he took part on foot, he himself carried the Blessed Sacrament. He frequently visited the seven churches of Rome. He was regularly present at the forty hours devotion in the church of the Jesuits, and nearly every year on that occasion he said Mass there. He did the same at S. Maria Nuova on the feast of St. Frances of Rome. Like Clement VIII, Paul V sometimes heard confessions for hours on end.

Into his immediate entourage the Pope only admitted men distinguished by piety, industry, prudence, modesty, peacefulness and disinterestedness. His servants were allowed to wear nothing more showy than wool. He was by nature extremely economical; the low state of finances induced him to limit his court to a minimum, yet he always found money for the needy. From the first he continued the alms given by his predecessor. Six poor men were given food in his palace every day; later the number was increased to thirteen. The Pope spent large sums every year on dowries for girls without means, on foundlings and to help with bread, clothes or money those who were ashamed to own their poverty. When he went out, which was often, he gave alms freely. His fatherly solicitude for the poor in the city was shown also by the fact that he endeavoured to procure the best flour for them at a low price. He was also anxious for the liberation of the unfortunate prisoners in Turkey as also for the generous support of needy Greeks, and of the English, Scots and Irish, who had been driven out of their countries and had sought a refuge in Rome. Regular subsidies also went to the colleges for the training of clergy in Rome and elsewhere; to missionaries, Religious orders and various charitable institutions in the Eternal City. Giovan Battista Costaguti, who was majordomo from 1618 to 1621, has recorded the subsidies granted by Paul V; the sum which he spent on the objects mentioned amounts to 82,710 scudi a year. To this must be added occasional relief distributed by the Pope or his officials. In this way the expenditure on charity each year came to 120,000 scudi. Paul V himself mentioned this figure in 1619 to the imperial envoy. The alms which came to the knowledge of Costaguti amounted to 1,300,000 scudi for the whole pontificate.

In order always to have money for these charitable objects, Paul V insisted on limiting as much as possible his personal expenditure. For this reason he wished to curtail his visits to Frascati, his only recreation. At first he even thought of dispensing altogether with such stays in the country, for the sake of economy, but reasons of health compelled him to give up the idea. His constitution and the fatigue resulting from the work of government obliged him several times in the year, mostly in spring and autumn, to leave the heavy, oppressive air of Rome for the hills, where, free from all ceremony, he could take the exercise, so necessary for him, more easily than in the Eternal City. Nevertheless he hardly ever prolonged for more than a week his stay at the Villa Mondragone, purchased in 1614 from the Duke of Altemps. During these periods he said Mass, sometimes in the domestic chapel of the villa, sometimes at the Capuchins’, at Grotta-ferrata, Monte Porzio, Monte Compatri and at Camaldoli, where he had founded a magnificently situated hermitage for the sons of St. Romuald. In Rome during the first years of his pontificate he only spent the winter months at the Vatican; for the summer and autumn of 1605 and 1606 he lived at the Quirinal Palace. In 1607 we find him there by the end of April, in 1608 in June, in 1609 on July 8th, in 1611 and 1612 in May, remaining there continuously until October. After the extensive building operations at the Quirinal were completed in 1613, he lived practically all the year in the spacious apartments of that splendid palace.

The self-sacrificing devotion of Paul V to the duties of his position could not have been greater. To an excellent memory he added indefatigable industry. His instructions to his envoys were revised and altered by him down to the last detail. He himself composed many letters to nuncios. But, since he wished to deal with everything himself and at the same time was very meticulous, conscientious and deliberate in all his doings, and averse from anything hasty, the whole world soon complained of his slowness. When these mutterings reached the Pope’s ears, he remarked that it was no wonder if he did not from the first make great changes as other Popes had done, for these had had time to work out a scheme of government in advance, while he had been raised to the chair of Peter unexpectedly, and so he must be allowed time for reflection. In these circumstances it was not surprising that the granting of numerous favours, as was customary at the beginning of a new reign, did not take place. The Pope thought that in these concessions there might be requested and granted things that should not be; he meant to proceed with the strictest conscientiousness and to weigh diligently what might be granted.

In spite of the taciturnity and majestic dignity which were characteristic of Paul V, his contemporaries spoke highly of the kindness and patience which he showed at audiences. He knew just how to temper his distinguished reserve with affability in conversation. While still a Cardinal he possessed these qualities in so high a degree that his courtesy was proverbial. He listened to reports and requests with such goodwill that even those who were embarrassed took heart and came away with the impression that every reasonable request would easily meet with success from such a Pope. For the first few years Paul V rather was too liberal in granting audiences; subsequently he had to limit their number. In order to obtain the exercise which he so greatly needed, Paul V gave audiences whilst walking up and down the corridors of the palace.

The appointments to the more important posts were only made at the end of May, 1605. Cardinal Pompeo Arigoni continued as Datary. Cinzio Aldobrandini as Grand Penitentiary, Montalto as Vice-Chancellor, Pietro Aldobrandini as camerlengo, Luigi Capponi as tesoriere generate, and Favio Biondi as major domo, while Girolamo Pamfili was made Cardinal Vicar of Rome, Roberto Ubaldini, nephew of Leo XI, maestro di camera, and Settimio Ruberti coppiere. The important office of Secretary of Briefs to princes, i.e. Secretary of State, was given to Cardinal Erminio Valenti. He conducted the correspondence with the nuncios until the end of August, 1605; but at the beginning of September the management of affairs passed, nominally at least, to Paul V’s nephew Scipione Caffarelli, his sister’s son.

Scipione Caffarelli had begun by studying philosophy at the Roman College founded by the Jesuits; later on he read for the law at the University of Perugia. His extant manuscripts show that in these subjects he was both industrious and keen. The expenses of his education were paid by his uncle. When the latter, soon after his elevation to the papacy, summoned him to Rome, it was thought in court circles that he would marry, as Paul V’s brother, Giovan Battista, and his son were both invalids. But by the beginning of July, 1605, a rumour arose that Scipione was destined to be Cardinal nephew. Sooner than was expected, on July 18th, his admission to the Sacred College took place. The young man of twenty-seven received, at the same time as the purple, the name and arms of the Borghese.

Cardinal Scipione Borghese was a stately man; he possessed an attractive manner, uncommon versatility and ability and a vivacious if not a profound mentality. His unusually genial, obliging and cheerful manner soon won him great favour. He was specially adapted for the important position of Cardinal nephew. Towards the Pope and his relations the nephew behaved from the first with the greatest discretion and reserve.

Immediately after Borghese was made a Cardinal, when the apartments in the pontifical palace, which had formerly been those of Aldobrandini, were assigned to him, it was rumoured in Rome that he would be entrusted with the important affairs of state in place of Valenti. After Scipione had been placed, in August, 1605, at the head of the Consulta, which was responsible for the government of the States of the Church, he soon took Valenti’s place. This was not surprising since Valenti, formerly secretary to Pietro Aldobrandini and nominated on his recommendation, was on the closest terms with Clement VIII’s nephew. His position became intolerable, as it was impossible for good relations to be maintained between the Pope and the arrogant Pietro Aldobrandini, although Paul V, in order not to appear ungrateful, attached great importance to their being kept up.

Clement VIII’s nephew, at one time so influential, had made many enemies during the thirteen years of his uncle’s pontificate. His wavering, unreliable and selfish conduct in the recent conclaves had been a fatal blow to his prestige. Aldobrandini foolishly made immediate petitions to the new Pope for a quite excessive number of favours. Finally, one circumstance in particular had a damaging effect. Aldobrandini, as legate to Ferrara, archbishop of Ravenna and camerlengo, was in a position which was bound to bring him into conflict with the Pope’s nephew, especially in view of his own ambition. Aldobrandini was so little able to adapt himself to changed conditions that he tried to make a big political move on his own authority by negotiating with the representatives of France and Savoy for an alliance of the Italian powers against Spain. The dismissal of Valenti was a great blow to Aldobrandini; soon afterwards it was apparent how strained relations had become between him and Scipione Borghese.

In December, 1605, an open dispute arose about a valuable collection of books, which Clement VIII’s nephew maintained had been given to him by his late uncle by word of mouth whereas Cardinal Borghese could produce a written deed of gift from Paul V. Other measures of the reigning Pope annoyed Aldobrandini even more. It was already a great disappointment to him that his relinquishing of the office of camerlengo in favour of the young Ippolito Aldobrandini was not accepted; then came the strict application of the obligation of residence, which compelled him either to give up the large revenues of the archbishopric of Ravenna, or by leaving Rome to lose his position in the Curia. When in April, 1606, Paul V took the Ferrara legation away from Aldobrandini and transferred it until further notice to Cardinal Spinola, a formal breach ensued. Aldobrandini left Rome on May 21st, 1606, and retired to his see of Ravenna. Two years later he had a sharp quarrel with Cardinal Caetani, who had been sent there as the Pope’s legate, and in consequence went to Savoy for the winter. The excellent work which he did in reforming the archdiocese of Ravenna subsequently effected a reconciliation with Cardinal Caetani and the Pope. In February, 1610, Aldobrandini returned to Rome, where he received many tokens of favour from Paul V. Better relations with Scipione Borghese began to appear in the autumn of 1612, but their mutual jealousy continued even afterwards.

While Aldobrandini’s relations with Paul V underwent many vicissitudes, Cardinal Scipione on the other hand remained continuously in his uncle’s favour. The clever and worldly-wise nephew knew exactly how to accommodate himself to the Pope’s character. Realizing that the Pontiff meant to rule with complete independence, Cardinal Scipione at first acted with great reserve and with such caution that the Venetian envoys, who had come to pay homage, thought that he had not the slightest influence and hardly dared to open his mouth. All the honours due to a nephew in charge of affairs were paid to him; the envoys, after their audience with the Pope, had to visit him; but they never received any definite answer, not even an assurance of his support of their interests. Cardinal Scipione persistently continued this prudent reserve, which was likewise observed by other persons entrusted with the most important business, such as the Datary, Cardinal Arigoni, and the Secretaries of State, Martino Malacrida and Lanfranco Margotti.

The respect and devotion shown by Cardinal Borghese to the Pope could not have been greater. In politics also, especially in regard to the neutrality of France and Spain, he worked in close conjunction with the Pope. Although all who had causes to plead in Curia paid great respect to the Cardinal and begged for his support, he took care not to forestall the Pope in the slightest degree, but did everything to help him in his work and to satisfy everyone, at least with pleasant words. This was often very difficult, as Paul V was very firm once he had made up his mind.

The energy, patience and fidelity with which Scipione Borghese served the Pope brought him a wealth of favours. In 1607 he obtained the legation to Avignon in place of Cinzio Aldobrandini. In the year 1608 alone he became archpriest of the Lateran, prefect of the Congregation of the Council and abbot of San Gregorio on the Coelian, and in 1609 he was made librarian of the Roman Church. After the death of Cinzio Aldobrandini he also obtained, in 1610, the office of Grand Penitentiary and, two years later, following the resignation of Pietro Aldobrandini, that of camerlengo and prefect of Briefs. In addition Cardinal Borghese became prefect of the Segnatura di Grazia, protector of several Orders and of the Swiss Guard, and from 1610 to 1612 he held the archiepiscopal see of Bologna. In the last year of his uncle’s pontificate he also became protector of the Holy House of Loreto and archpriest of St. Peter’s.

The annual income of Scipione Borghese in 1609 amounted to from 80,000 to 90,000 scudi; three years later it had increased to 140,000. The Pope’s generous allowances enabled Cardinal Borghese to buy up the best property in Latium, the owners of which allowed themselves to be induced by the high prices which they obtained to part with their ancestral estates. Thus in 1614 the nephew obtained from Pier Francesco Colonna, Duke of Zagarolo, the villages of Montefortino, Olevano and other property for 280,000 scudi. The Borghese gradually succeeded to the position of the Colonna and Orsini, who from the early middle ages onwards had been owners of the environs of Rome. To this day on the dull walls of the massive and spacious country houses of Latium can be seen the family portraits of the new owners, and among them that of Scipione Borghese. One becomes reconciled, to some extent, with the great wealth of Cardinal Borghese, when one reads of the generous use he made of it. He was always open-handed with the poor; writers and artists were given the greatest help. The Cardinal, whose somewhat corpulent features have been preserved in two marble busts by Bernini, possessed knowledge as well as love of art. We shall speak later, in the chapter dealing with art, of the splendid activity which he displayed in this connection, traces of which are encountered to this day in so many places in Rome.

Scipione Borghese’s patronage of art brought him great popularity in Rome. This was further increased by his magnificent scale of living, which was more that of a great personage of the world than of a prince of the Church. The banquets which he gave to the envoys and Cardinals were extraordinarily sumptuous. These festivities, which sometimes took place in the Cardinal’s splendid villa outside the Porta Pinciana, were the talk of the town. When on one occasion the nephew had arranged such entertainments just before Easter, when not only the Pope but large numbers of the people devoted themselves entirely to spiritual exercises, he was justly rebuked. He has also been accused of frivolity. But no certain proofs of immorality have yet been adduced. In any case grave transgressions would have caused him to forfeit his position with the Pope, who was very strict in such matters.

Of Paul V’s brothers, who were described as very good men, the elder, Francesco, very pious and generous, had married a Santa Croce but was childless. The younger, Giovan Battista, had by his marriage with Virginia Lante only one little son, Marcantonio, four years old, on whom therefore the future of the family depended. At the very beginning of the pontificate Francesco was made governor of the Borgo and captain of the pontifical guard, and Giovan Battista keeper of Castel Sant' Angelo. When in November, 1605, Francesco became general of the Church, the Pope made him hand over the governorship of the Borgo to his brother. By this means Paul V thought to assuage their mutual jealousy. He gave them the palace in which he had lived as a Cardinal, and the patrimonial rights, which were subsequently to devolve upon Giovan Battista’s son. The brothers, of whom Giovan Battista was particularly dear to the Pope, had an audience every evening, but were not allowed to interfere in matters which did not concern their official duties, since Paul V would not tolerate outside influences. The brothers were compensated by receiving gifts, as varied as they were valuable, and large sums of money. Giovan Battista in particular was abundantly provided for as the one who had to carry on the family. These subsidies were so large that by 1609 Giovan Battista had invested about 300,000 ducats in landed property. In the autumn of 1607 a splendidly furnished apartment in the new Vatican palace was assigned to him; in the winter of the following year he took up residence in the Borgo, in the palace where Cardinal Galli had previously lived. Moreover a family palace was also to be built.

Cardinal Borghese was very careless in money matters. When the Pope once asked him what he did with his large income, he replied with a shrug of the shoulders that his brother Giovan Battista managed it. Small wonder then that the revenue was insufficient and the brothers got into debt. Cardinal Scipione’s father, Francesco Caffarelli, who first lived at Nepi and who was eventually permitted to come to Rome, had previously found himself in financial straits. The Pope’s nephews of the Vittori family also had heavy debts. In this case, however, the Pope showed no desire to intervene. In fact his relations were not always a source of joy to him. The quarrels between the two brothers were a special cause of great distress. Giovan Battista died on December 24th, 1609. The Pope bore the sad loss as the will of God with great calmness and truly Christian resignation.

One cause of contention between the brothers was the marriage of Diana Vittori. Giovan Battista wanted this niece of the Pope to marry into the Lante family. But Diana was opposed to the match. Then there was talk of her marrying the Prince of Roccella, a member of the Carafa family, who was not only without means, but actually in debt. This marriage took place in November, 1607. In this affair also the Pope was to experience more than one annoyance.

After the death of her husband, Giovan Battista s widow entered the convent of Poor Clares at San Lorenzo in Panisperna. The education of her son, Marcantonio, was undertaken by the Pope. He was exceptionally fond of the boy; during the visits to Frascati, besides Cardinal Borghese, Marcantonio, on whom rested all the hopes of the house of Borghese, was always to be seen in Paul V’s company. “While His Holiness”, said the Venetian ambassador Mocenigo in 1612, “loaded Cardinal Borghese with ecclesiastical offices and revenues, he heaped secular benefits upon Marcantonio, who already bore the title of Prince of Sulmona”. This fine property in the kingdom of Naples had been acquired by Paul V two years earlier for his nephew. Later he bought Morlupo, near Nepi, for him. Great plans were also laid for his marriage. Just as under Clement VIII the house of Aldobrandini was allied to the Farnese of Parma, so Paul V would gladly have brought about a similar union between the Borghese and the Medici. But there were obstacles in the way; eventually Camilla Orsini, of the Bracciano family, was chosen as a wife for the eighteen-year-old nephew. The original idea was that the wedding should be celebrated at Frascati, in the Villa Mondragone. But it actually took place in Rome. Camilla Orsini arrived there on October 19th, 1619, and the marriage was celebrated the following day in the new Pauline Chapel of the Quirinal palace. The Pope himself said the Mass, at which the bridegroom acted as server. The couple received Holy Communion from his hands. When Francesco, the Pope’s elder brother, died in the following year the Prince of Sulmona was made general of the Church.

Paul V’s great affection for his family acted as an inducement for Princes and Cardinals to honour it as much as possible. As early as 1605 Cardinal Aquaviva presented his beautiful villa at Frascati to the Borghese. When the Duke of Mantua stayed in Rome in the autumn of 1605, he made a present to Cardinal Borghese of a diamond worth 4,000 scudi. At the same time Venice made the nephews honorary citizens. The republic of Genoa did the same in 1606. The French envoys made repeated gifts to Cardinal Borghese. Philip III likewise showed himself very anxious to win over the nephews and to obtain the Pope’s favour by the bestowal upon them of pensions and honours. As early as 1605 he conferred upon the Prince of Sulmona the title of a Grandee of Spain.

Since nepotism was the one failing of Paul V, it was to it that his opponents directed their attacks. Where his nephews are concerned the conduct of the Pope, in other respects so admirable, certainly deserves severe blame. He probably did not fully realize how much he failed in this respect, for, in face of a frank remonstrance on the subject from Cardinal Bellarmine, he defended himself by saying that his presents to his relations had only been given with moderation and not out of ecclesiastical revenues! Unlike the Popes of the Renaissance, Paul V kept aloof from the worldly conduct of his nephews. To form a fair judgment it is also necessary to bear in mind that neither of the Pope’s nephews had any real influence on important decisions or on the direction of policy. This applies even to the Cardinal Secretary of State. Paul V also refrained from establishing his relatives as independent princes, as the Popes of the Renaissance had done. He never for a moment thought of nepotism on the grand scale of times past, although there were again and again opportunities for this, especially when there was great dissatisfaction in the kingdom of Naples with the harsh rule of the viceroy Ossuna. It was enough for him that the Borghese should take their places among the Roman princes and equal in wealth the Colonna and Orsini or, if possible, surpass them. Paul V did not live long enough to see Marcantonio’s son, Paolo, increase his fortune by marrying in 1640 Olympia Aldobrandini, the heiress of that family.

The historic splendour and rank of the Borghese family was destroyed by the great bankruptcy of the year 1891. Its private art collections, including much that recalled Paul V, and the exceptionally valuable library, started by Paul V and considerably increased by Cardinal Scipione, were unfortunately dispersed by public auction. The manuscripts, some of which are of great value, and the priceless family archives were saved from this fate by Leo XIII, who again showed himself a great promoter of historical studies by buying them for 300,000 francs and placing them in the Papal Secret Archives.

CHAPTER III.

Paul V as Ruler of the Papal States. Papal Finance.

HISTORY OF THE POPES FROM THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES (1605-1621