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CHAPTER VII
PLANS OF REFORM
By the Capitulation Act at the Election of 1458, the
new Pope was expressly bound to undertake the reform of the Court of Rome. In
the case of a man like Pius II, this motive of action was scarcely needed, for
he had learnt life in all its phases, and amassed a wealth of experience,
combined with multifarious knowledge, which was unequalled amongst his
contemporaries. No one knew better than he that great and terrible evils
existed in all the other countries of Christendom, as well as in Rome and
Italy. At the beginning of his Pontificate, Pius II certainly was not wanting
in zeal for the work before him. Evidence of this disposition is found in a
fact which has hitherto remained unknown to students of history. The Pope
appointed a Commission, composed of several Cardinals, Bishops, Prelates, and
Doctors, to deliberate concerning the Reform of the Roman Court. “Two things
are particularly near my heart”, said Pius to the members, of this
Committee,—“the war with the Turks, and the Reform of the Roman Court. The
amendment of the whole state of ecclesiastical affairs, which I have determined
to undertake, depends on this Court as its model. I purpose to begin by
improving the morals of the ecclesiastics here, and banishing all simony and
other abuses from hence”.
Of the projects brought forward on this occasion, two
are before us, that of the learned Venetian, Domenico de' Domenichi, and
that of Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa, which latter was embodied in a Papal
Bull. The Cardinal, who was an intimate friend of the Pope, took a wider view
of the question than Domenichi, and drew up a scheme for the general
reform of the Church. According to it, three Visitors were to be chosen; and,
beginning with Rome and the Court, were gradually to extend their labours
throughout the whole Church. Fourteen Rules were laid down for the guidance of
these Visitors, who are to be “grave and proved men, true copies of Christ our
model, preferring Truth before all else, combining knowledge and prudence with
zeal for God, not striving for honour and riches, but detached from
all things, and spotless in thought and deed, a burden to none, contenting
themselves for food and raiment with what is appointed by the Canons, to which
they are bound by oath”.
The substance of the Rule for the Visitors may be
summed up as follows : From among those to be visited, three sworn men are to
be chosen, with whose cooperation the reform is to be carried out. Its ultimate
aim is a return to primitive conformity with the precepts of the Church, so
that everyone, ecclesiastics and laity, may live in a manner befitting his
vocation and, condition. Detailed directions are given in regard to beneficed
persons, specially aimed at the abolition of pluralities; the incorporation of
Church preferment in Chapters and Convents is strictly forbidden; a very
important clause threatens all secular and regular Clergy, who, under pretext
of Papal privilege, oppose the reform, with the loss of their prerogatives.
Those who despise Papal censures are to be deprived of their benefices, and the
faithful to be forbidden to attend their ministrations. The Visitors are
recommended to pay special attention to Hospitals, to the fabric of Churches,
to fraudulent dealers in Indulgences, to the enclosure of nuns, to the
genuineness of Relics, and whether the veneration in which they are held is
excessive, also the reality of alleged miracles, particularly Bleeding Hosts.
Finally, the Visitors are to be zealous in eradicating open usury, adultery and
contempt of the commands of the Church; to suppress all factions, to cleanse
all places from the defilement of soothsayers, sorcery, and all such sins, by
which the Divine Majesty and the Christian commonweal are offended, and to do
their best to bring back the purity of the early Church.
The second part of Cusa’s project concerns
the amendment of the Court of Rome. Beginning from the Pope, a list of reforms
is called for affecting the Cardinals, the Court officials, and the Roman
clergy. He who remarks anything calculated to give scandal, even in the Supreme
Head of the Church, is to speak out freely. The Court is not to be an asylum
for idle and roaming Prelates, Beneficiaries, and Religious, or to furnish them
with opportunities for suing for higher dignities and amassing benefices. All who,
for any just reason, are detained there, must conform to the rules of the
Church, in conduct, morals, clothing, tonsure, and observance of the Canonical
hours. Members of the Court, even laymen, who lead immoral lives, are to be
sent away. The office of the Penitentiary is to be most closely examined. Here,
as well as in the other offices, Cusa urges the removal of novelties
which have been introduced for the sake of gain; if nothing better can be done
at present, at least the Court might be brought back to the state it was in at
the accession of Martin V.
The plan of Domenico de' Domenichi is
equally bold. His long residence in Rome had given this distinguished scholar
and diplomatist a thorough acquaintance with existing evils. The scheme of
reform for the Roman Court, which he submitted to the Pope, is divided into
twenty-two sections. The first two are directed to prove the necessity of
Reform, and depict in dark colours the prevailing corruptions. Hence Domenichi concludes
that the work of renovation must begin with the Pope and the Cardinals, then be
extended to the Bishops, and ultimately to the other members of the Church, and
that none should venture to put hindrances in the way. The fifth section brings
him to his special subject. He begins with Public Worship, the ceremonies to be
observed by the Pope, and of the silence which should be maintained by the
Cardinals and Prelates in Church. A Chapter is devoted to the duty of
Almsgiving, especially as incumbent on the Pope, who should be the father of
the poor. Indulgences, according to Domenichi, should be granted but
rarely. Nepotism is strongly condemned; in making appointments, good and
learned men are always to be preferred; but Domenichi does not
disapprove of the advancement of virtuous members of the Pope’s family! Those
who immediately surround the Supreme Head of the Church must be blameless;
above all, they must be absolutely incorruptible.
In the eleventh section Domenichi touches a
fundamental ecclesiastical abuse; that of the plurality of benefices. This
demands strong measures, especially in the case of reversions. Sections 12-17
refer to the life of the Cardinals and higher Prelates. Those who compose the
Supreme Senate of Christendom are to set a good example, to hear Mass in
public, to eschew all luxury and pomp; the members of their households are to
wear the tonsure, and to be clad as clerics. Grievous abuses have crept in, and
give great scandal to those who come to the Court. Sumptuous banquets must not
be given by the Cardinals and Prelates, not even to do honour to
Ambassadors; Domenichi would have jewels and gold and silver plate
almost completely banished from the houses of Prelates. In the case of Bishops
and beneficed Clergy, the duty of residence is strongly urged. Young men who
frequent the Court instead of devoting themselves to study, and seek to rise to
ecclesiastical dignities by the favour of Cardinals, are severely blamed. A
special Commission to insist on the duty of residence is suggested. The
eighteenth chapter condemns the custom which prevailed at the Papal Court, of
allowing Protonotaries and Ambassadors to take precedence of Bishops.
Penitentiaries should be forbidden to receive anything from those who made
confession to them. Above all, a regular salary ought to be assigned to the
Court officials, especially to the Abbreviators and members of the Rota, and
all other gains be forbidden. Finally, Domenichi expresses the wish
that the Decrees of Constance and Basle, for the amendment of the Court, may be
carried out as far as they suit present circumstances. In the last section he
recommends the institution of a Congregation of Cardinals and Prelates to
effect the reform of the Court officials, especially those of the Chancery, who
should make it their business to eradicate everything approaching to Simony.
Unfortunately these extensive reforms were only
partially undertaken. The fact that Pius II summoned such a man as
St. Antoninus to take part in his Commission, and also caused a Bull
to be drafted directed against the prevailing abuses, will prove that, for a
time, he seriously intended to carry out this important work. But, in the end,
he did not venture to engage in a gigantic conflict with all the evils which
had invaded the Church, and contented himself with opposing isolated abuses.
The alarming advances of the Turks, and the struggle for the existence of
Christendom, soon engrossed his attention, and, if his whole energies were not
absolutely absorbed by the Turkish question, an unusual combination of troubles
in Italy, France, Germany, and Bohemia, claimed a part of his care. The
question of Reform was driven more and more into the background, and in the
interests of the Church, this cannot be sufficiently regretted. It remains
certain, however, that Pius II was not altogether inactive in this matter. As
early as June, 1459, the Bishops were restored to their proper precedence over
the Protonotaries. The Apostolic Referendaries were
required, on their entrance on office, to swear that they would not receive any
presents. It is evident that the abuses in the Penitentiaries must also have
been corrected, for the simple, moderate, and upright Calandrini was
appointed Grand Penitentiary. Pius II carried out an expressed desire of Domenichi’s when, in the year 1460, he set on foot a
thorough visitation and Reform of the Penitentiaries of St. Peter’s, the
Lateran, and Sta Maria Maggiore. Ordinations not in accordance with the
canonical prescriptions were strictly forbidden by a Bull, issued in 14614
Strong measures for the suppression of concubinage among Seculars and Regulars
in the Diocese of Valencia were adopted in 1463. Peter Bosham, who went as
Nuncio to Scandinavia in 1463, received a special charge to see to the reform
of the clergy in those parts. Pius II also took pains to enforce the duty of
residence on incumbents in the Venetian territory.
Cardinals who, like Rodrigo Borgia, forgot the dignity
of their position and gave themselves up to a licentious life, and worldly
members of the Sacred College and of the Roman Court, were often sharply
rebuked by the Pope. His zeal for the restoration of Monastic Discipline is
especially worthy of praise. The terrible descriptions given by well-informed
contemporaries, such as Johannes Ruysbrock,
Johannes Busch, and Jakob von Jüterbogk, bear
witness to the enormity of the abuses. Soon after his accession the Pope
published a Decree to hinder members of Mendicant Orders from withdrawing
themselves from the jurisdiction of their superiors, under pretext of studying.
Later on we find him proceeding against relaxed Convents in different
countries, especially in Italy, Germany, and Spain. He bestowed many favours on
the admirable and exemplary Benedictine Congregation of St. Justina, at Padua;
confirmed all its former privileges, and aggregated to it convents which were
in need of reform.'! The amendment of the Convents of the Order of Vallombrosa
was undertaken in 1463. In Florence and Siena, Pius II sought to restore
Monastic Discipline. Measures were taken for the Reform of the Humiliati in Venice, of the Dominicans at Forli and
Reggio, and of the Carmelites at Brescia. Martial Auribelle,
the unworthy General of the Dominicans, was removed from his position by the
command of the Pope. Pius II was encouraged to take a peculiar interest in the
renovation of the Carmelites, on account of the character of their General,
John Soreth, a man who combined gentleness with
austerity, and who had all the knowledge of the necessities of the case
demanded by such a work.
The Pope did, comparatively speaking, a great deal for
the improvement of the German Convents. Amongst other entries of the kind in
his Registers are ordinances for the reform of the Scotch Abbey at Ratisbon,
and of the Poor Clares at Basle, Eger, and Pfullingen.
At the very outset of his reign he warmly acknowledged and commended the
devoted labours of the Benedictine Congregation at Bursfeld,
and extended to it the privileges which Eugenius IV had granted to that of St.
Justina in Padua Subsequently he supported this Union of German Benedictines
in various ways; two Bulls in their favour bear date 1461.
It has been remarked that the external constitution of
the Bursfeld Congregation was characterized
by a centralization which did not belong to the original Benedictine rule. This
change was due to the circumstances of the period. Isolation had latterly
brought much evil to Convents. In consideration of this fact Pius II, in 1461,
contemplated the union of the three Congregations of Bursfeld,
Castel, and Mölk. Although this great scheme was
not carried into execution, this was not due to any diminution in the reforming
zeal of the Pope. In April 1464, the Papal Nuncio, Jerome, Archbishop of Crete,
in support of the reform of the Benedictine Convents, declared that nothing was
more pleasing to the Pope than this salutary work. The nobles, however, were
its chief opponents. In Bamberg there seemed danger that the occupation of the
Abbey of St. Michael’s Mount by reformed monks not belonging to the Franconian
nobility would provoke a civil war. When we consider the wealth of the
Benedictine Order, we can understand the interest of the nobility in preventing
the Reform of these Abbeys. The reform of the Bavarian Premonstratensians, and
of the Dominicans in the Netherlands, was also promoted by Pius II.
Among the Franciscans he favoured the strictest, that
is to say, the Observantines. A series of Bulls shows that he confirmed
donations made to them, permitted them in some places to build new houses, and
conferred privileges on them; favours calculated to give them a greater hold on
the people. In his many journeys the Pope loved to rest at their houses. In
obedience to a Papal command the Conventuals withdrew from the Convents at
Tivoli and Sarzana to make way for the Observantines. In Spain
and Germany, also, he befriended them, and they, on their side, were
indefatigable in preaching the Crusade. In 1464 he gave to the Vicar-General of
the Observantines out of Italy authority to proceed independently
against any members of the Order who might fall away from the Faith, a
privilege which was, however, withdrawn by later Popes. The favours shown
to the Observantines advanced the cause of real Reform, for their
preachers in Italy were most successful in combating the prevalent immorality;
the party passions that burst through all bonds; and the usury by which the
people were impoverished. They were the chief originators and promoters in
Italy of one of the most useful Institutions of that time, the public
pawn-offices. These Montes pietatis,
as they were called, relieved the immediate necessities of the poor, and saved
them from becoming the prey of the usurer.
No less fruitful were the labours of the
Franciscan Observantines among the heathens and Infidels. In their
missionary work they displayed a courage and constancy such as were no longer
to be found among the Secular Clergy or the other Religious Orders. In Bosnia,
Dalmatia, and Croatia, in Moldavia and Wallachia, in all provinces which had
already fallen or were inevitably falling under the power of the Crescent,
the Observantines, step by step, and often sword in hand, defended the
Christian faith. They had houses in Jerusalem near the Holy Sepulchre, and in
other parts of the Holy Land, in Rhodes, and in Crete. They were established in
Minorca and Iviza, and thence they accompanied the expeditions to the Canary
Isles and Guinea, where there was a great dearth of Secular Clergy. There, on
the West African Coast, Negro slavery in the time of Eugenius IV had just begun
to appear. In the days of Pius II it had attained such proportions that even
the converts of the Missionaries were not safe from Christian slave-dealers.
When the Pope heard of these doings, he at once, in a Brief of the 7th October
1462, to the Bishop of Ruvo, condemned the nefarious traffic, and
threatened all Christians who should dare to drag the new converts into
slavery, with severe ecclesiastical penalties. Pius II also actively promoted
the ransom of Christians who were in captivity among the Turks.
The Jews, who in those days were often the victims of
much unjust oppression, also excited the compassion of the Pope. During the
Congress at Mantua, a Jewish Deputation brought their grievances before him. He
desired the Bishop of Spoleto to examine carefully into their complaints, and
then issued a solemn Decree, forbidding the baptism of Jewish children under
twelve, against the will of their relations, and also the practice of
compelling the Jews to do servile work on Saturday. He manifested the same freedom
of spirit in regard to astrology, the interpretation of dreams, and other forms
of magic, which, in those days, were so much in vogue.
The foregoing pages have brought Pius II before us as
the zealous opponent of the adherents of National Churches and the Supremacy of
Councils. As there were in his earlier writings, especially those belonging to
the period of his sojourn in Basle, many things to which this party could
appeal in support of their opinions, he felt called upon to make a solemn
retractation of his former errors. This was done in the celebrated Bull of
Retractation, addressed to the University of Cologne on the 26th April 1463.
Pius II begins by recalling to mind the Dialogues which, while as yet only in
minor orders, he had addressed to the University of Basle,
in defence of the Supremacy over the Pope, claimed by the Council
held in that City. “Perhaps”, he proceeded, “this may have led some of you into
error. If God should now require this blood at our hands We can only answer by
an acknowledgment of our sin. But it is not enough to pray for mercy from God,
We must also seek to repair our fault. Misled, like St. Paul, We have said,
written, and done much that is worthy of condemnation, and, in ignorance, have
persecuted the Church of God and the Roman See. Therefore We now pray : Lord,
forgive us the sins of our youth! Meanwhile our writings are no longer in our
own power but in the hands of many, and may, if misused by the evil-minded, do
great harm.
“We are therefore obliged to imitate St. Augustine,
and retract our errors. We exhort you, then, to give no credit to those earlier
writings which oppose the Supremacy of the Roman See, or contain anything not
admitted by the Roman Church. Recommend and counsel all, especially
to honour the throne on which our Lord has placed His Vicar, and do
not believe that the Providence of God, which rules all things and neglects
none of His creatures, has abandoned the Church Militant alone to a state of
anarchy. The order given by God to His Church requires that the lower should be
led by the higher, and that all, in the last resort, be subject to the one
Supreme Prince and Ruler who is placed over all. To St. Peter alone did the
Saviour give the plenitude of power: he and his lawful successors are the only
possessors of the Primacy. If you find in the Dialogues, or in our letters, or
in our other works—for in our youth we wrote a great deal—anything in
opposition to this teaching, reject and despise it. Follow that which we now
say; believe the old man rather than the youth; do not esteem the layman more
highly than the Pope; cast away Aeneas, hold fast to Pius”.
To confute those who attributed his change of mind to
his promotion to the Papal dignity, Pius takes a retrospect of the Basle
period, and shows that he had come to acknowledge the truth long before his
elevation. This is proved by the letter of recantation which Aeneas Sylvius
addressed to the Rector of the Academy of Cologne, in August 1447.
At the conclusion of the Bull the Pope again insists
on the monarchical constitution of the Church. What St. Bernard taught
regarding Eugenius III is to be applied to Eugenius IV, and to all successors
of St. Peter. The summoning of General Councils and their dissolution
appertains to the Pope alone; from him, as from the head, all power flows into
the members.
The decision with which Pius II resisted the Conciliar
Party was also manifested in regard to the encroachments of the temporal power
on the liberty of the Church. In Italy he had to defend himself against attacks
of this kind from Siena and Venice, and from Borso d'Este. The appointment of Bishops to the Sees of
Cracow and Leon involved him in disputes with the monarchs of Poland and
Castile and Leon. In these two cases he was defeated, but in Aragon a Pragmatic
Sanction, which threatened the liberty of the Church, was annulled. This matter
was brought to a satisfactory conclusion by Stefano Nardini.
If Pius II pronounced many censures, the circumstances
of the time were the cause. As far as in him lay he was circumspect in the
employment of these weapons, and their increasing inefficacy is one of the most
serious tokens of the waning influence of the Church.
In 1459 he felt bound, in defence of the integrity of
the Faith, to take measures against the heretical writings of Reginald Pecock, who was tainted with the errors of Wickliffe, and
had, in 1457, been deprived of the Bishopric of Chichester. The Pope also gave
orders for the punishment of a rigorist sect which declared celibacy to be
necessary for salvation. These errors sprang up in Brittany while Picardy was
infested by numerous Waldenses, against whom Pius II pronounced severe
sentences. “In the very States of the Church a sect appeared which would
acknowledge no one as successor of St. Peter who did not follow his Master in
poverty”, a description which must apply to the Fraticelli. In Bergamo a Canon
of the Cathedral taught that Christ suffered, not from love to the human race,
but constrained by astral influences; that in the consecrated Host He is
present, not in His Humanity but only in His Divinity; and that theft and
robbery are not mortal sins. The Dominican, Giacomo da Brescia, and the Papal Auditor,
Bernardo da Bosco, induced the unhappy man to abjure his errors, which, by the
Pope’s command, he expiated by confinement in a convent for the rest of his
life.
The name of Giacomo da Brescia is connected with a
dogmatic dispute which, even in the time of Clement VI, had divided the
Franciscans and Dominicans. The question between them was, whether the Blood
shed by our Lord in His Passion, and reassumed at His Resurrection, was, during
the three days He remained in the Sepulchre, hypostatically united with the
Godhead, and therefore entitled to worship? The celebrated Minorite Preacher,
St. Jacopo della Marca, in the pulpit at
Brescia, on Easter Sunday, 1462, maintained the negative, and was, at the
instance of the Dominican, Giacomo da Brescia, publicly accused of error and
heresy. A hot dispute at once arose between the Franciscans and Dominicans
which the Bishop of Brescia in vain endeavoured to appease. Then Pius II, under
pain of Excommunication, forbade any one to preach publicly or privately on the
question. Notwithstanding this prohibition the agitation continued, and
accordingly, at Christmas, 1462, a great Disputation was held by the Pope’s
order, and in his presence. Domenico de' Domenichi, Lorenzo Roverella, and the Franciscan, Francesco della Rovere, greatly distinguished themselves. After
three days of discussion a consultation was held with the Cardinals, most of
whom, as well as Pius II, pronounced in favour of the Dominican opinion. A
definite Decree on the subject, however, was deemed inopportune; the services
of the Minorites as preachers of the Crusade were indispensable, and Pius II
was therefore unwilling to offend them. The fact that, in August, 1464, the
Pope was again obliged to forbid preaching and disputation on this point, shows
that the conflict continued.
Although Pius II did not follow the example of his
predecessors in instituting any new Church festivals, he observed those which
already existed with great solemnity. This remark is especially applicable to
the Feast of Corpus Christi. In 1461 Pius was in Rome at the time, and himself
carried the Host in the great Procession, in order to express his veneration
for the Holy Sacrament of the Altar. In the following year, when he was at
Viterbo seeking relief from the gout which caused him so much suffering, the
Feast was celebrated with surpassing splendour. All the pomp and pageantry of
the Renaissance were pressed into the service of religion. From the Church of
St. Francesco to the Cathedral, in the streets through which the Procession was
to pass, all booths and other obstructions were cleared away, and the work of
adorning the houses was distributed amongst the Cardinals, Prelates, and
members of the Court then in the City, the Pope reserving a share for himself.
The rich tapestries of the French Cardinals were a marvel to behold. Other
members of the Sacred College prepared Tableaux Vivants representing appropriate scenes.
Torquemada exhibited the Institution of the Blessed Eucharist: a statue of St.
Thomas Aquinas was included in the group. Carvajal depicted the fall of the
Angels; Borgia had a fountain of wine symbolizing the Blessed Sacrament, with
two adoring angels; Bessarion’s represented a choir of angels. There
were also exhibitions which we can scarcely understand in the present day, such
as combats of savages with wolves and bears. A Holy Sepulchre was erected in
the market-place, from which, as the Pope drew near, the Saviour arose, and, in
Italian verse, announced the redemption of the world. The tomb of the Blessed
Virgin was also to be seen, and, after High Mass and Benediction, her
Assumption was represented by living figures. The streets through which the
Procession took its course were hung with garlands ; there were sky-blue awnings
decorated with golden stars; gorgeous triumphal arches and altars of repose had
been erected, and sacred music resounded on every side. Thousands of persons
had congregated from the surrounding neighbourhood. Pius II in full pontificals bore the Blessed Sacrament. The
chroniclers of Viterbo affirm that so glorious a festival had never been
celebrated, either in their City or in any part of Italy.
Canonizations were always celebrated by the Popes with
great magnificence. The Pontificate of Pius II witnessed only one event of this
kind, that of St. Catherine of Siena. She died at the age of thirty-three, and,
like St. Francis of Assisi, was at once venerated by the people as a Saint. Her
letters were widely read; even a rationalistic historian describes them as a
magnificent book of devotion, parts of which seem more like the words of an
Apostle than those of an unlearned maiden. Her likeness, copies of which had,
by the beginning of the 15th century, been multiplied in Venice, was in the
possession of thousands. Yearly, on the day of her death, her feast was kept at
the Dominican Convent, her panegyric preached, and wreaths of flowers and
crowns were laid before her picture. In the evening a dramatic representation
of the principal scenes of her life was performed in the Court of the Convent.
The choruses sung on this occasion are still preserved; the following is one of
them: “O sweet city of ours, Siena, birth-place of the Holy Virgin, the glory
of this poor maiden outweighs all thy other glories”.
The Holy See had never forgotten its debt to this
simple nun. Several of the Popes, especially Gregory XII, had taken the cause
of her Canonization in hand, but the troubles of the time, and afterwards the
jealousy of the Franciscans, prevented its completion. The question was again
raised by the Sienese Ambassadors in the time of Calixtus III. Pius II gave it
his attention immediately on his accession, and entrusted the necessary
investigations to certain Cardinals. At the Congress of Mantua further progress
was made in the matter, but, as the Holy See proceeded with its usual
circumspection, it was not concluded until 1461. Consistories were held on the
8th and 15th June, and in the latter the Canonization was finally decided.
Great preparations were made; an Ambassador estimates the expenses at 3000
ducats. On the Feast of SS. Peter and Paul, Siena’s most distinguished son
declared that the Church had raised the greatest of her daughters to the Altar.
The Pope himself drew up the Bull of Canonization. To a Sienese”, he says, “has
been granted the happy privilege of proclaiming the sanctity of a daughter of
Siena”. Pius II further composed an Epitaph, the Office, and several Latin
hymns in honour of the new Saint.
The Italians, in whose hearts the memory of Catherine
was ever fresh, were full of joy, which found expression in solemn processions.
The inhabitants of Fontebranda, the quarter of
Siena in which she was born, turned the house into an Oratory. This Sanctuary
has been beautifully decorated, and still contains many relics of the Saint.
Other memorials of her abound in the ancient city. Pinturicchio painted her
Canonization in the library hall of the Cathedral, and in the Chapel of S.
Domenico, where her head is preserved, Sodoma’s picture is perhaps
the most beautiful and touching likeness of her that exists. Rome also has many
memorials of the Saint; in 1855, when Pius IX laid her body in a new
resting-place beneath the High Altar of S. Maria Sopra Minerva, and again, in
1866, when the same Pontiff added a fresh jewel to her Crown by declaring her
Patroness of the Eternal City, the Romans did not fail to pay
due honour to her memory.
After the election of Pius II the Sacred College
numbered twenty-three, members, of whom only seventeen were then present in
Rome. Late in the summer of 1459, when James of Portugal and Antonio de la
Cerda were removed by death, the Pope had but fifteen Cardinals around him.
This circumstance, and the opposition manifested by the French party
immediately after the Conclave, compelled him at once to consider the question
of further creations. These were violently opposed by some Cardinals,
especially by Scarampo. The Pope, however, stood firm; it was necessary
that he should secure a devoted majority. This must be remembered in our
judgment of the much blamed practice of promoting relations. In the Apostolic
Senate, as he found it, Pius II had determined adversaries and few friends, and
this compelled him to make fresh nominations.
Not until March, 1460, was all opposition overcome; on
the 5th of that month Pius II created his first batch of Cardinals at Siena.
Those chosen were all excellent men. Angelo Capranica, brother of the
estimable Cardinal Domenico, was distinguished by his austerity, piety, and
uprightness, and was also considered to be an admirable administrator.
Bernardo Eroli was celebrated for similar
qualities. Although raised to the Bishopric of Spoleto, and invested with
several small offices, he had continued poor. Pius II had the greatest
confidence in him, and showed him marked favour. Some of the Cardinals opposed
his elevation on account of his plebeian origin and needy position, but the
Pope took no heed of their objections. He made him Legate for Perugia, and Eroli held this appointment until his death, many
years later. He was stern in manner, even harsh and rough, but all who knew him
were obliged to confess that he not only thoroughly understood justice, but
also practised it.
The brave Niccolò Forteguerri,
the third of the Cardinals created on this occasion, combined diplomatic skill
with remarkable military talents, and was distantly related to the Pope. The
reader will remember the services he rendered to the Papal cause in the war
against the party of Anjou and Malatesta. The assertion of a modern historian
that there was more of the soldier than of the priest in Forteguerri, is contradicted by the opinion of
well-informed contemporaries.
His youthful age was all that could be brought against
Francesco de' Todeschini-Piccolomini, son of the Pope’s sister, Laudomia. He was a man of distinguished culture, versatile
capacity, and estimable life.
Alessandro Oliva, General of the Augustinians, was in
every sense an admirable man. Pius II introduced him to the Cardinals, “elect
of God, and perfect like Aaron”. In the fifth year of his age, his parents had
consecrated him to God and the Blessed Virgin; for forty-two years he had
belonged to the Augustinian Hermits, who adhered strictly to the ancient rule,
and laboured assiduously to restore the failing credit of the Order. He had for
many years been professor of Philosophy at Perugia. Later he traversed the
greater part of Italy as a zealous and inspired preacher. Elected General of
his Order in 1458, his life was a shining example of perfection. From his
unwearied efforts to appease party contests in the Italian cities, he was
called the angel of peace. His summons to the Senate of the Church took him
completely by surprise, and his friends had to supply the necessary outfit.
Elevation to the purple made no change in his austere life, or his rule of
devoting six hours every day to the Canonical Office. He was often seen to shed
tears when offering the Holy Sacrifice. Although his income was but small,
Oliva was always ready to help the poor Exiles, needy Churches and Convents,
and Greek Schismatics returning to the Church. He was a zealous patron of learned
men. Gentle towards others he was severe towards himself, and wore a hair shirt
beneath the purple. He never quitted his modest dwelling except to visit the
Pope, the Cardinals, or the Churches. A heavy blow was dealt to the Church,
when, in August, 1463, he was carried off by a fever at the age of fifty-five.
Pius II himself undertook the charge of his funeral, and presided at his
obsequies. In his Memoirs, he writes of him with deep feeling: “He was an
ornament to the Sacred College. The lustre shed by his learning was only
equalled by the radiant purity of his life. Many men might have died, and no
harm be done; this death inflicted a severe wound on the Church”.
If to have made such a man Cardinal, is one of the
glories of Pius II, the general belief which prevailed that Oliva, if he had
lived long enough, would have been the next Pope, reflects equal credit on the
Sacred College.
The sixth new Cardinal, Burchard of Weissbriach, Archbishop of Salzburg, was retained in
petto, as the Pope did not wish to offend the other ultramontane Princes. The rest were, contrary to all
expectation, published at once on the 5th March 1460. Pius II admonished them
in an impressive address on the duties of their high office. On the 8th
March, Forteguerri, Eroli,
and Oliva received the red hat, and on the 19th their titular Churches of S.
Cecilia, S. Sabina, and S. Susanna. On the 21st of
March Capranica and Todeschini-Piccolomini also arrived, and, five
days later, the Churches of S. Croce in Gerusalemme and
S. Eustachio were assigned to them. Cardinal de Castiglione dying on the 14th
April, Todeschini-Piccolomini was, on the last day of that month, appointed
Legate of the Picentine Marches.
All the Cardinals published on the 5th March were
Italians. It was impossible, however, permanently to disregard the feelings of
the Ultramontane powers. As early as December, 1460, Pius II began to
speak of the necessity of showing them consideration in this matter, but he
again encountered violent opposition. A year elapsed before he was able to
carry out his purpose. On the 18th December, 1461, three Italians and
three Ultramontanes were added to the
Sacred College. Among the Ultramontanes, the
names of Jouffroy and d'Albret have already
come before us. Their elevation, like that of Jayme de Cordova, Bishop of Urgel, and of Francesco Gonzaga, was due to princely
influence. From the time of the Turkish Congress close relations had existed
between Pius II and the family of Gonzaga, and from a yet earlier period
between the Pope and the Hohenzollerns. Lodovico, the most cultured noble of an
intellectual age, sympathized with the Pope in his efforts for the promotion of
Science and Art. Francesco, who was twenty years of age, was pursuing his
studies at Padua when the Purple was conferred upon him. His tendencies were
anything but ecclesiastical. He took, however, a lively interest in Literature
and Art.
The two other Italians who entered the Sacred College,
Bartolomeo Roverella and Jacopo Ammanati,
came of poor families, and were distinguished by a good humanist culture. Roverella had to thank Nicholas V for his nomination
to the Archbishopric of Ravenna. From that time forward, he had been
unceasingly occupied in political Embassies or the administration of the States
of the Church, under Pius II he had governed the March of Ancona and Umbria,
and he had especially distinguished himself in the Legation in the kingdom of
Naples during the war against the Anjou. Vespasiano da Bisticci praises the conscientiousness, the fear of
God, the simplicity and humility of Roverella. Ammanati was
born in 1422, at Villa Basilica near Lucca, and went at an early age to
Florence, where he laid the foundation of his classical studies. In the time of
Nicholas V he came to Rome; there he lived in the greatest poverty, entered the
service of Capranica, and under Calixtus III became Apostolic Secretary.
Pius II, on the very day of his election, confirmed him in this appointment. It
soon became evident that he enjoyed the special favour of the new Pope, who, in
1460, conferred upon him the Bishopric of Pavia. His episcopal labours were
most fruitful, and during his long absence he took care that his place should
be properly filled. Ammanati looked up to Pius II, who had received
him into the Piccolomini family, and invested him with the rights of a citizen
of Siena, with affectionate reverence. The Sienese Pontiff was his ideal in
literary matters. His continuation of the Commentaries, and his numerous
letters, are quite in the Pope’s style; they are among the most important
historical authorities of the period. The loss of his Life of Pius II is
greatly to be regretted. Although not perfectly free from Humanistic vanity and
irascibility, the Cardinal of Pavia was a good man: his will bears witness to
the generosity and kindliness of his disposition.
The elevation of the Archbishop of Salzburg was not
published till the 31st May, 1462, at Viterbo. There is no authority for the
assertion that the Bishop of Eichstatt, John III von Eich, was also at
this time raised to the Purple. There can be no doubt that his zeal in the
reformation of his diocese well deserved such a distinction; but the Calendars
of Eichstatt do not mention it, and the fact that the Consistorial Acts of the
Secret Archives are equally silent is conclusive. In the year 1463 the Sacred College
lost two of its members, Prospero Colonna and Isidore. Their places, however,
were not filled, though, during the remainder of Pius II’s Pontificate some
princes sought to bring about fresh creations of Cardinals.
Pius II was not an enthusiast for Art, like his
predecessor Nicholas V, or his successors Paul II and Leo X; nevertheless he
appreciated it keenly, and did much for its promotion. Numerous architects,
sculptors, painters, goldsmiths, and miniature painters were employed by him;
but the government of the Church was the engrossing interest of his life.
Both the Vatican Palace and St. Peter’s were
embellished by this Pontiff. The tribune for the Papal Benediction, and the new
Chapel of St. Andrew, which he caused to be erected, are important works, and
deserve special notice. “A spacious platform, to which an imposing flight of
steps 133 feet wide led up, then occupied that side of the Piazza of St.
Peter’s, where Bernini’s colonnades now meet. Beyond this platform was the
entrance to the Atrium, supported by columns, which had to be traversed in
order to reach the five doors of the ancient Church. On this platform Pius II
erected the new tribune, having first restored the steps which were much
dilapidated, and adorned them with colossal statues of SS. Peter and Paul”. In
1463 the celebrated Mino da Fiesole was employed here. Antique pillars
supported the tribune, which was covered with marble sculptures. The Chapel of
St. Andrew, to the left of the principal entrance of the ancient Church, was
built to receive the head of that Apostle. This beautiful shrine was destroyed
when the Basilica was rebuilt. Some fragments of the magnificent reliquary, in
which the head of the Saint was kept, are preserved in the Grotto of St.
Peter’s. Recent investigations have proved that all Pius II’s great works were
carried out under the direction of the sculptors, Paolo di Mariano (Romano),
and Ysaias of Pisa.
The roof of St. Peter’s, the Lateran, Sta Maria
Maggiore, S. Stefano, Sta Maria Rotunda (Pantheon), the Capitol, many of the
bridges, and also the wall encircling the city, were repaired by Pius II. It is
evident that the mighty projects of Nicholas VI had no attraction for him. Rome
was to him the city of ruins. While yet a Cardinal he gave expression, in a
well-known epigram, to that sense of the transitory nature of all earthly
things which the Eternal City, more than any other' place in the world, tends
to impress on the mind.
O Rome! thy very ruins are a joy,
Fall'n is
thy pomp, but it was peerless once!
The noble blocks wrench'd from
thy ancient walls
Are burn'd for
lime by greedy slaves of gain.
Villains! If such as you may have their way
Three ages more, Rome's glory will be gone.
This feeling comes out still more strongly in the Bull
issued by Pius II, on the 28th April, 1462. In it he forbids the injury or
breaking down of ancient buildings in Rome, and in the Campagna, even on
private property, reserving to himself the right of making any alterations that
may become necessary. The Pope’s account books show that he frequently availed
himself of this right. A Roman citizen, Lorenzo, the son of Andrea Mattei,
was appointed architectural superintendent of the City. Many buildings were
erected, mostly for military purposes, and various restorations carried out in
the States of the Church by the Pope’s order, and at this expense, at
Assisi, Civita Castellana, Cività Vecchia, Narni, Nepi, Orvieto, and
Viterbo. A new harbour was made at Corneto, and, as we have already
mentioned, a fort was built at Tivoli.
The ancient city of Siena is still full of memories of
Pius II and the Piccolomini. In the Cathedral an inscription records his gift
to it of an arm of St. John the Baptist; also that he had raised it to the rank
of a Metropolitan Church, and, in 1460, granted an Indulgence there. A second
inscription on the uncompleted wall of the projected larger Cathedral
commemorates his prolonged stay at Siena. We have more than once mentioned the
frescoes in the Cathedral Library, which are so striking a memorial of this
Pope, “in their abiding freshness and the splendour of their unfading colours”.
The lover of the past, as he walks through the streets
of the City, which still retains a mediaeval air, will notice on many of its
houses and palaces the armorial bearings of the Piccolomini; he will admire the
graceful vaulted hall (Loggia del Papa) which, according to the inscription,
Pius II dedicated to his family. The builder of this Loggia, commenced in 1460,
was Antonio Federighi. The architect, Bernardo, designed the plans for the
dwelling which Pius II caused to be erected for his sister, Caterina, in the
principal street of Siena (Palazzo Piccolomini della Papesse, now Nerucci), and
also for the magnificent Palace commenced by Giacomo and other Piccolomini,
which still bears their name. The stately splendour of the early Renaissance
architecture is strikingly exemplified in this building, and yet more in the
magnificent works in the Pope’s birthplace.
Midway between Orvieto and Siena, near the ancient
military road to Rome, and at three hours’ distance from Montepulciano (famed
for its wine), the Episcopal City of Pienza is
enthroned upon a hill of Tufa. It is a straggling place, almost isolated in the
Valley of Orcia, and the hill on which it is
built slopes steeply down towards the South East. Here once stood the Castle
of Corsignano, and, in its neighbourhood, the country-house where the Pope
was born. While still a Cardinal, Pius II, with “that warm love of home, which
was a marked feature in his character”, had adopted the poor parish; in 1459,
after his elevation to the Papal Throne, he determined to adorn it with a new
Cathedral and a Palace. The works were at once begun; and, in 1460, the Pope personally
inspected their progress. On account of the strained relations between Pius II
and the Republic, he did not visit Siena in 1461, or either of the two
succeeding years, and devoted all the more attention to his birth-place. In
1462 it was invested with municipal privileges, and named Pienza, and the Cardinals and Court officials were called
upon to build residences there. By the month of June, 1462, the Cathedral was
sufficiently completed to be consecrated; and, in August of the same year, the
City was made an Episcopal See.
Pius II calls the Director of these works by the name
of Bernardus Florentinus, and in the Papal accounts he is styled Mastro Bernardo
di Fiorenza. It is not, however, clear whether he is the same as
Bernardo Rosellino, or Bernardo di Lorenzo, who
built the vestibule of S. Marco in Rome. The original estimate was considerably
exceeded, yet Bernardo continued in favour with the Pope, and was even
entrusted with fresh commissions. The Bishop’s Palace, the Canon’s residence,
and the Town Hall are also his work.
The buildings we have mentioned are picturesquely
grouped round a little square in which a fountain plays; to the south is the
Cathedral, with its beautiful facade; near it, on the eastern side, is the
grave and simple House of the Bishop (Vescovado); on
the west the great Palace of the Piccolomini, an imposing edifice in the
Florentine rustic style. Though now sadly dilapidated, the interior, with its
richly-coloured coffered ceilings, and beautiful doors and chimney-pieces,
bears witness to the taste of the truly artistic Prince. Each of the three
storeys on the southern side, overlooking the garden, has an open gallery which
commands that magnificent view of the Etruscan hills, on to the basalt summits
of Monte Amiata and wild Radicofani, which had such charms for a lover of nature
like the Pope. Almost opposite the Cathedral, and separated from the Bishop’s
Palace by the principal street, is the Town Hall (Palazzo del pretorio), richly decorated in Sgraffito; a true work of
the bright and joyous early Renaissance. It has an open court, and at one
corner a beautiful Campanile ornamented with elaborate iron-work. The
Cathedral, which has three doors, stands like that of Siena, with its choir
overhanging the steep slope of the hill, and has under the High Altar, in
imitation doubtless of that church, a Crypt accessible from the interior, which
forms the Baptistery. The plan of the edifice is that of a Church with three
Naves of equal height, an arrangement very unusual in Italy. It appears to have
been begun from the choir; there are many traces of the Northern Gothic style,
the pointed windows have rich late Gothic ornaments. When we come to the
beautiful facade, all these disappear, and the Renaissance reigns supreme. It
is interesting to note the circle of chapels round the choir, contrary to the
manner of the Italians. The general impression conveyed by the whole is that
the architect had been desired to introduce certain Northern ideas, and this
accords with the statement in the Pope’s Memoirs. He says he had decided on the
form of a church with Tribunes, because, from the examples which he had seen in
Austria, it appeared to him more beautiful and lighter. The Castle Church at
Wiener-Neustadt (A. D. 1449), the Cathedral at Graz (A. D. 1449), and St. Stephen's
at Vienna, may have suggested this type to him.
The interior of the Cathedral was cased with marble,
and the Pope issued a special Bull prohibiting the introduction of paintings,
tablets, or any kind of adornment that could interfere with the effect of its
glistening whiteness. The stalls in the choir are extremely beautiful, with the
Italian-Gothic carving and intarsia work, and on them the Pope’s armorial
bearings, supported by angels, with the date 1462, are introduced. On the other
hand, almost all the furniture of the Church, holy water stoups, lectern, font,
are of the best early Renaissance. A tabernacle in the same style as the Church
is still to be seen in a chapel to the left, near the High Altar; in the other
chapels are three altars with Italian wood-carvings in basso relievo, and
pictures of the Sienese School. In one of these chapels relics are kept,
amongst others a portion of the head of St. Andrew.
Pius II’s Gothic Pectoral Cross and Chalice are
preserved there, the latter high and wide in the cup. The richly embroidered
Cope of the Pope is also there, with a number of more modern vestments.
Campanus, Pius II’s Court Poet, celebrated in verse
the new creation of the early Renaissance, the effect of which is indeed
strikingly complete and harmonious :—
If I, Pientia, stand on
high
In pomp and splendour drest,
My very name will tell you why
To me above the rest
Of country-towns there should be giv'n
A city's laws and state,
A rich Cathedral, solid walls,
A Palace fair and great.
Pius, the Pontiff, loves full well
The cradle of his race,
Envy me not, that he bestows
On me his special grace!
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