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Reading Hall The Doors of Wisdom |
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THE HANSA, 1150-1400. THE IBERIAN PENINSULA, 1000-1344. ENGLAND,
1087-1189.
IT is
impossible to write the history of the world with any clearness or success,
unless it is regarded from some central point of view. The central position
adopted in this history has been that of the empire and the papacy, the two
powers which kept the states of Europe together as a single society, and whose
dissolution in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century brought about a
new epoch and began modern history. We have now reached, roughly speaking, the
end of the thirteenth century, when the empire is receiving a new form under
the house of Hapsburg; the papacy is approaching a time of weakness, by the
removal of the see to Avignon, from which it has never recovered; and the
kingdoms of Europe, in consequence of the loosening of these bonds, are
beginning to assert themselves ; while the crusades and the spirit which
animated them have come to an end by the fall of Acre in 1291. We must now deal
with Spain, England, and France separately, taking the history of each of them
down to the middle of the fourteenth century, leaving the fortunes of the
empire and the papacy to be described later, except so far as they are dealt
with in the annals of the countries we have mentioned. To follow a completely
chronological order is impossible, and we must adopt a compromise.
The
weakening of the central power of Europe produced leagues to insure the mutual
protection which the superior authorities were not able to supply, and we will
give some account of the most powerful and distinguished of them—the
Hansa—which will serve as a specimen of the rest. The inner unity of Europe,
apart from political alliances, was begun by commerce, and its first notable
appearance is found in the connection between England and Germany, or, more
exactly, between the two great commercial cities of Cologne and London. Cologne
was the only seaport of the German empire, and as early as the reign of Aethelred II we find a statute regulating the tolls payable
for German participation in London markets. Henry II, in a decree of 1157, took
the merchants of Cologne under his European special protection, and Richard Coeur-de-Lion,
on Commerce. passing through Cologne after his imprisonment, gave the citizens
the privilege of free commerce in all England, with liberty to visit all fairs.
The Plantagenet kings were favorable to foreign trade, and in the fourteenth
century foreign merchants were useful to English kings for the purposes of
loans, and the English barons, who were in conflict with the monarchy, found it
also to their interest to encourage them. On the other hand, the English towns
and guilds, which had begun to assume an important position, were anxious to
preserve a monopoly. Another important commercial league was formed in Belgium,
where seventeen towns leagued together for mutual protection. The Flemish towns
were chiefly occupied in weaving cloth, for which the raw material came from
England, the English climate being especially suited to the production of pure
wool. The manufactured cloth often came back to England, but we do not find
fine cloth made in England till the time of the Tudors.
The
growth of international commerce made new financial arrangements necessary, and
the Italians were the first financiers. In the fourteenth century they first
adopted the system of companies of shareholders, which had their consuls and
other agents in northern Europe. The financiers also began to frequent certain
quarters in different towns, such as the Rialto in Venice, which may be
regarded as the parent of our modern exchanges. The Lombards became famous as
lenders of money, but their business was regarded as unchristian, and the
taking of usury was forbidden by the church; consequently money-lending fell
into the hands of the Jews. But the Lombards had accumulated a large amount of
capital, and, to some extent, took the place of the Jews, who were expelled
from England under Edward I in 1290. Dante has made us familiar with the hatred
with which the Caorsini, or inhabitants of Cahors in France, were regarded, who were usurers, but the
name was given to all the usurers in southern Europe, just as bankers were
called Lombards. The Caorsini came first into England
in 1285, under the protection of the pope, to whom they lent money. In the next
century, their place was taken by the so-called Lombards, who were chiefly
Florentines, represented by the great houses of Bardi, Varrazzi, and Frescobaldi, and who lent money to
sovereigns, sometimes at a great loss.
In the
thirteenth century, a new set of merchants came from the Baltic, under the name
of Easterlings. The Cologne Hansa opposed them
strongly, and they had to ask for assistance from Frederick II. The
Hamburgers obtained the right to make a separate Hansa in 1266, and the Lübeckers
in the following year. At last Cologne had to give way, and the three Hansas of Hamburg, Lübeck, and Cologne became one. They
established, in 1282, a factory on the Thames, called the Steelyard, and it
remained the property of the Hansa till 1852. Similar factories were founded at
Bruges in Belgium, Bergen in Norway, and Novgorod in Russia. They were
surrounded by walls, and the gates were closed at night.
One of
the principal seats of the Hansa was the town of Wisby, in the Swedish island
of Gothland. It is still worth a visit, but it once
had forty-two towers sixty or seventy feet high, eighteen churches, mighty
walls, and 12,000 citizens. In Russia, Kiev was for many years the great market
for exchanging the products of the East with those of northern Europe. But at
last it was found that an easier passage lay through northern Italy. A
settlement of the Hansa was now established at Great Novgorod, and the
merchants of St. Nicholas’ Hof, in Wisby, transferred themselves to St. Peter's Hof in Novgorod. The river Volkov divided the city into two parts, the trading town
being on the right bank, the municipality on the left. The Novgorod merchants
assembled in the church of St. John, and founded St. John's Guild. The town was
a virtual republic, and was governed by a popular assembly. But it was
difficult of access. Ships bound for it passed from the gulf of Finland up the
Neva, and through Lake Ladoga to the mouth of the Volkov,
and had to tranship their goods into lighter vessels,
for the completion of the journey of eighty miles. Two convoys came from
Germany every year, the winter convoy and the summer convoy. There was also a
land convoy, but it was considered of less importance. The foreign traders were
known as Latins; they were under the special protection of the church, and had
an organization of their own, with a code of laws. St. Peter’s court, as it was
called, was governed by two aldermen, and in cases of difficulty appeal was
made to Wisby, but Lübeck gradually asserted herself, and obtained first a
share and then a supremacy in the government of the Novgorod Hansa. Lübeck did
not secure her power without a struggle. She had to contend with Denmark, who
was ambitious for the control of the Baltic trade. In order to maintain her
position as the staple between East and West, she was always trying to prevent
direct communication between the two, and there was no difficulty in this when
the Sound was impassable from ice.
But in
the earlier times the most important centre of international commerce was Bruges.
It was a place for the exchange of the products of western and southern Europe
for those of the East. The produce of the Levant came from the Rhine and from
France. Ships laden with wine arrived from Gascony, Portugal, and Spain. In the
thirteenth century the Easterlings appeared, though
at first they had no permanent settlement. Bruges owed its mercantile
importance to being a seaport : it was connected by canals with Sluys and Damme, both on the
coast—though transhipment was generally necessary—and
great dykes, built at the end of the twelfth century, protected it from floods.
But, like Ghent and Ypres, it was also a manufacturing town, its chief product
being cloth, which it wove, refined, and dyed.
During
the weakness of the empire which succeeded the fall of the Hohenstauffens,
the commercial towns began to form leagues of mutual protection. There were
three principal groups. The Wendish group, which
formed the kernel of the Hansa league, consisted of Lübeck, Rostock, Stralsund,
Wismar, Greifswald, Hamburg, and Luneburg. Lübeck and Hamburg formed an
alliance in the middle of the thirteenth century, making common cause against
pirates and sharing the expense. There were also the group of the lower Rhine
and Westphalia, and the group of the Netherlands. With other smaller groups,
these principal groups made up the Hansa. But a well
organized confederation of all the commercial towns never existed, and
all attempts to form such a league were failures. Lübeck indeed did her best to
create one by holding meetings, passing statutes, and imposing contributions,
but the meetings were not attended, the statutes were not obeyed, and the contributions
were not paid. No looser confederation is known to history. Lübeck was no
Athens, and the Hansa no Delian League. It had no
powers of armed compulsion : indeed, most of its component towns were subject
to the emperor. The Teutonic Knights exercised jurisdiction over the towns in
their domain, which did not become independent till that Order fell. And,
though at one time or another, some ninety towns paid contributions to the
Hansa, the payment was not continuous and the geographical limits were very
badly defined. Lübeck exercised a supremacy, and summoned meetings, but the
only sanction for their resolutions was amongst themselves the boycott, and
against foreigners the strike; and the use of these weapons at different times
was often the cause of disaster to the towns who employed them. It is difficult
to lead commerce back into paths which it has once deserted. At the close of
the fourteenth century, a body of pirates made their appearance in the North
Sea, known as Vitalian Brothers, a name which is supposed to be connected with
a desire to provide themselves with victuals. They conquered Gothland, passed into the North Sea, and plundered Bergen,
so that the Hansa had to arm themselves against them and summon the southern
towns to their assistance. However, in April 1402, the pirates were defeated,
and their leaders made prisoner. The history of the Hansa after 1400 will be
treated of later.
THE
IBERIAN PENINSULA, A D. c. 1000-1344.
We must
now turn our attention to the Iberian peninsula, where the struggle between the
Christians and the Moors was proceeding with great intensity. The dynasty of the
Omayyad’s died out about the end of the tenth century with Hisham III, a descendant of the great Abdurrahman. The power of the khalifs still continued in Bagdad and Cairo, but in Cordova
it was lost forever. The empire, once so powerful, was broken up into tiny
principalities, each town with its emir, vali, or cadi. Perpetual war
raged between them, the stronger always endeavoring to suppress the weaker. In
this manner, some thirty years later, Cordova fell into the hands of the emir
of Seville, who was the most powerful Mohammedan sovereign in Spain, except the
emir of Toledo. But in May 1085, Alfonso VI, king of Castile, made his
triumphal entry into Toledo. He promised the inhabitants the possession of
their property, the practice of their religion, and the maintenance of their
laws and privileges. But many Christians from the north settled in the town,
and swelled the numbers of the Mozarabian Christians,
whose worship had been tolerated by the Moors. Archbishop Bernard of Sahagun took possession of the great mosque at Toledo for
Christian worship, while Talavera, Madrid, and other towns gradually suffered
the same fate as Toledo.
In 1086
the Almoravids of Morocco, a very powerful tribe,
which from a family of simple Bedouins had gradually become masters of Morocco,
were invited into the peninsula to oppose the encroachments of the Cross. In
the great battle of Solara, not far from Badajoz, Alfonso and the
Castilian knights were severely defeated, and ten thousand Christians’ heads
were sent to deck the battlements of Spanish and African fortresses. The Almoravids soon proved themselves rather masters than
allies, and, by the close of the century, they were ruling over the southern
portion of the peninsula. Seville was conquered by them in 1090; Granada,
Malaga, Jaen, and Cordova fell before their victorious onsets. Saragossa alone
remained independent, and, with its surrounding districts, formed a buffer
state between the Christians and the Moors. To this period belong the exploits
of the great commander, the Cid, Ruy Diaz, the Campeador, praised in Spanish romances as the paragon of the
heroic virtue, the crown of chivalry, the pattern and prototype of the manly
warrior. The last action of his life was the conquest of Valencia in 1095.
After his
death, deeper misfortunes fell upon the banner of Castile. On May 30, 1108, was
fought the battle of Ucles, in which Sancho, the
youthful son of the aged king, Alfonso, hoped to drive the unbelievers from
that mountain city, and to show himself worthy of succession to the crown. But
he was slain on the battlefield, and with him perished the flower of Castilian
chivalry. Alfonso could not survive this disaster, for Sancho had been the hope
of his life. He was the son of his fifth wife, the daughter of the Emir Mohammed
of Seville, who had been converted to Christianity. His first four wives had
only borne him daughters. He died just a year afterwards—the "Shield of
Spain", as he was called, the conqueror of Toledo, the strongest barrier
of his country against the Moors—and his death gave new lustre to the line of the Almoravid rulers. Thus, at the
beginning of the twelfth century, the peninsula was still divided between
Mohammedans and Christians, the Christians being settled in the kingdoms of
Castile, Aragon, and Portugal, and in the marquisate of Barcelona. The
individualism, the spirit of separation, which has, through a large portion of
her history, so fatally weakened Spain, was even then apparent, and a powerful
prince of Navarre, Leon, or Galicia could easily assert his independence
against his feudal sovereign. However, the Moors began to yield ground, and in
1118, Saragossa, so long the abode of Moslem emirs, became the capital of
Alfonso I of Aragon, who reigned from 1104 to 1134. He received the title of Batallador, the fighter of battles.
In the
middle of the century, a rising of the original Spanish Moors against the Almoravids took place in Andalusia, led by Dissensions
Abdel Mumin, the successor of a mahdi who among the had founded a religious sect, and had preached a crusade in Morocco.
Algeciras was conquered; Gibraltar and Xeres opened
their gates; in Seville and Malaga public prayers were offered for the success
of the new prophet. In their distress the Almoravids called to their assistance Alfonso VII, the successor of Alfonso VI, the
"Shield of Spain", whose career we have related. Alfonso was glad to
seize an opportunity which was so much to his advantage, and, with the help of
Count Raymond Berengar of Catalonia and Count William
of Montpellier, wrested Tortona from the Moors, and gained, for a time,
possession of Almeria. To the period immediately preceding his death we owe the
military orders of Calatrava, Alcantara, and Compostella, which for some time defended the frontiers of
the Ebro and the Douro against the Moslems, in spite of the internal
dissensions of the Christian kingdoms. But, since the days of Almanzor, no
prince had fought with such success against the Christians as Almohad Abdel Mumin, the
Commander of the Faithful. In twenty years, he founded an empire which extended
from the edge of the Sahara to the banks of the Guadiana, and from the shore of
the Mediterranean to the coasts of Cyrene. He was equally great as a general
and as a statesman; he gave his empire a firm political organization, and
placed his army and his fleet on a solid foundation of security. In Morocco he
founded an empire for the training of civil servants and officers; in Seville
and Cordova he revived the splendors of Omayyad culture, but without the luxury
and effeminacy which accompanied it. His life was simple, as his aims were
clear. War and conquest were the chief objects of his soul. After a reign of
thirty-three years, he was succeeded in 1163 by his son, the Cid Jusuf, and his son James Almanzor brought the century to a
close. In 1195, the Moors won the victory of Alarcos,
in which the flower of Christian chivalry—not only the knights of Calatrava, Alcantara, and Compostella, but
those of the Temple and St. John—covered with their corpses the stricken field.
But the Cross was at last avenged in the mighty battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, fought on
Monday, July 16, 1212. Pope Innocent III had proclaimed a general crusade
against the infidel. A crowd of ultramontane knights—it is said 110,000 in
number—came from all parts of Europe to assist the Spaniards. Many of them
retired before the battle, but, notwithstanding this, the Christians marched
forth from Toledo on June 21 to meet the Moslem invaders. They found the passes
of the mountains strongly guarded, and were despairing of success when St.
Isidore, the patron saint of Madrid, presented himself in the guise o f a
bearded shepherd, and pointed out a bye-path by which the col could be turned.
The victory was complete : it is said that more than 100,000 Moors were killed.
The Moslem supremacy in Spain received its death-blow. For many years
afterwards was celebrated in Madrid, July 16, the yearly festival of the
triumph of the Cross. After the catastrophe of Las Navas,
the decline of the Moslem rule proceeded with steady progress, only checked by
the dissensions ranks of the Christians
themselves. In 1236, Ferdinand III of Castile, who bore the title of
Saint, became master of Cordova, the capital of the khalifs,
after a long siege. The Moslem inhabitants were compelled to leave the town and
to settle in other cities, and the mosque was turned into a cathedral, now one
of the wonders of the world. In 1248, Seville suffered a similar fate; the
Moors emigrated from Andalusia in thousands, some to Granada, some to the
Moorish settlements in Murcia, and some over the sea to Africa.
To the
loss of Seville is due the rise of the Alhambra. The kingdom of Granada was
tributary to Castile, but the fertility of its soil and its commercial
importance raised it to eminence. Moorish customs, which were dying out in
Murcia, Valencia, and Andalusia, remained unchanged in Granada, where a number
of civilized Moors of good birth were collected together, who preserved
inviolate the traditional culture of their race, the love of science and
education, of poetry and song, of music and architecture. The Alhambra bears
everywhere inscribed upon its walls, “There is no conqueror but Allah”, like the
“Honi soit qui mal y pense” of the English Windsor. The origin of this was that
when Mohammed lbn al Hamah returned to his dominions
after the taking of Seville, he was saluted by his subjects with the Cry of “Garlib” (the conqueror), and he replied, “There is no
conqueror but Allah”. Under him and his successors, the little Saracen kingdom
was able, from time to time, to assert its independence, and to gain a few
precarious triumphs. But in 1340 was fought the battle of Salado, the theme of
many a Spanish song. Here the Moorish power was crushed for
ever, and four years later the harbour of Algeciras, the connecting link
between Africa and Spain, fell into the hands of Alfonso XI of Castile, leaving
the expulsion of the Moors a mere matter of time.
Still, to
the outward eye, the kingdom of Granada presented a proud appearance, and retained
much of its old splendor and
magnificence. It was protected on the sides of the north and east by the lofty range of the Sierra Nevada, rich with mineral treasures, supplying in the heat of summer a refreshing breeze from its snow-covered heights. The valleys, watered by
countless streams, contained pastures on their upper,
and vines and fruits on their lower slopes. The lofty
plateau of the Vega, watered by
the river Xenil, was covered by cornfields and orchards, while the harbors of the coast received
ships from all the nations of the world. In the midst of
this earthly paradise there arose, like a crown of beauty,
the city of Granada, seated on its
double hills, defended by walls and towers, adorned by palaces and mosques, surrounded by pleasure gardens,
filled with splashing fountains and shady arbours. On one of these hills stood the castle of the Alhambra, a jewel which
needs no praise, “shining”, as an Arab poet says, “like
a star through the foliage of olive groves”. Granada had a
sufficient army to defend it,
and, if its inhabitants failed, the warlike hosts of Africa could be summoned to its assistance. Under
pressure, the Moorish prince could place 100,000 armed
soldiers in the field,
comprising formidable archers and light Arabian cavalry. But for more than a hundred years a good understanding
was maintained with the court of Castile, until
the reign of Muled Abul Hassan, which began in 1466. When, in 1476, a tribute was demanded by Queen Isabella, the emir replied that
the mines of Granada no longer yielded gold, but
steel, and in 1481 he attacked, on a stormy winter’s night,
the little mountain fortress of Zahara, on the frontiers of Andalusia. The garrison was cut to pieces, and the inhabitants—men, women, and
children—were carried off as slaves to Granada. When the news reached the
Moorish capital, an aged priest cried out, “The ruins of Zahara will fall upon our own head; the days of the Moslem empire in Spain are
numbered”. We
must now leave this history—the fall of Granada belongs to the
close of the
Middle Ages.
ENGLAND,
A.D. 1087-1189.
The
history of England now claims our attention, but, for the reasons before
mentioned, it will not be treated in detail. On the death of William the
Conqueror in 1087, his second son, William, called Rufus or the Red, was crowned
in Westminster Abbey, eighteen days later, by Archbishop Lanfranc. This
excellent prelate died in 1089. His place as adviser was taken by Ranulf Flambard, the justiciar, an unscrupulous character, who rose to be bishop
of Durham. His great object was to obtain money for the king’s extravagance,
and he did this by putting pressure on the law courts, and exacting more
rigorously the payment of feudal dues. It is said that William neither feared
God nor respected man, but, as he suppressed the power of the barons, he was
popular with the English, who were also gratified by the separation of
Normandy, which had been left by the Conqueror to Robert, his eldest son. Rufus
incorporated Cumberland with England, and fortified Carlisle; he conquered
South Wales, and established his authority in Scotland, so as to make the
English and Norman elements of civilization predominate in the Lowlands. After
the see of Canterbury had been vacant for four years, it was filled by the
appointment of the great Anselm to the archbishopric. But Rufus opposed all
Anselm’s wishes, and quarreled with him so constantly that in 1097 Anselm
withdrew to the continent, and thus in 1099 was present at the Lateran Council,
which decided against lay investitures. In the next year, Rufus was killed by
an arrow in the New Forest, while out hunting.
Rufus was
succeeded by his brother Henry, who reigned for thirty-five years (1100 to
1135). Robert of Normandy had not yet returned from the first crusade, and the English
acknowledged Henry as their king, fearing an interregnum. He was an able man,
and Well educated, as his title “Beauclerc” implies,
but he was willful and immoral. At the same time, he respected the Christian faith,
at least outwardly. On his accession, he issued a charter, which is memorable
in English history. He promised the church freedom in its government and the
abolition of evil customs, such as keeping bishoprics vacant. He also promised
to the barons that he would exact nothing from them beyond what was authorized
by law, that he would not force marriages on heiresses or widows, that he would
render feudal dues less oppressive, and that he would allow the disposal of
personal property by will. He promised to the people that he would enforce the
laws of Edward the Confessor, as improved by William, and that he would
maintain the standard of the coinage. This charter may be regarded as the
foundation of the Great Charter, which was granted in 1215.
In the
first year of his reign, he imprisoned Ranulf Flambard, and married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III of
Scotland and Margaret, the granddaughter of Edmund Iron-side, thus uniting the
Norman and Saxon dynasties. In the following year, Robert, returning from the
East, with the glamour of a successful crusader, and supported by the Norman
barons, invaded England and attacked Henry, but the church and the people were
too strong for him, and a treaty was made, by which Robert acknowledged his
brother’s right to the crown. Robert of Belesme, the
most stubborn and most powerful of Henry’s antagonists, a monster in human
form, whose savage cruelties were long the subject of poetry and legend, was
conquered by Henry and deprived of his castles. He fled to Normandy, and
stirred up the impetuous Robert to rebel a second time against his brother. At
this time Robert’s Apulian wife died, and he was
deprived of the revenues which she had brought him from southern Italy, so that
he lost the allegiance of his nobles.
Henry
invaded Normandy, and offered Robert favorable terms, but he preferred the arbitrament of arms. On September of 28, 1106, forty years
to a day after the battle of Hastings, the battle of Tenchebrai was fought between the two brothers. The duke was defeated and four hundred of
his knights were taken; Robert of Belesme escaped,
but many years afterwards was captured by Henry and confined at Wareham, where
he died, Robert and Edgar Aetheling, the last male of
the Saxon royal line, the uncle of Queen Matilda, were among the captives.
Robert was detained for twenty-eight years in confinement, dying in 1134 in the
castle of Cardiff, a fiery spirit with a tragic history.
He had a
son, William Clito, whose claims to the duchy of Normandy
were supported by Louis VI of France. This led to repeated wars with France,
until, after the death of Clito in 1128, Normandy and
Maine were secured to England. In 1107, the question of Investitures, long
disputed between Henry and Anselm, was decided by the Concordat of Bec. Bishops and abbots were to be elected by the church,
but in the king's court, and with his sanction; the pope or the archbishop was
to confer spiritual rights by the gift of the ring and the crosier, but the
bishop or abbot elect was first to do homage to the king for the lands of his
see. Anselm died two years later, at the age of seventy-six, a worthy champion
of papal power and of scholastic learning.
Henry now
set himself to give England a strong government. Roger, bishop of Salisbury,
was made justiciar, and with his help Henry organized
the king’s court, the curia regis, and connected the courts of the shire with the
royal court. A ministerial nobility, dependent upon the crown, gradually grew
up in the place of the independent barons, whose power Henry destroyed. Royal
castles, well garrisoned, took the place of the feudal castles, which were
allowed to fall into decay. Queen Matilda died in 1118, a terrible loss for
Henry. She left a son, William, deeply loved by his father, and a daughter,
Matilda, who married the Emperor Henry V of Germany. But on November 25, 1120,
a terrible catastrophe occurred. William was crossing from Normandy to England,
with a throng of noble men and women, who were keeping themselves warm on a
cold winter's night with copious libations. The White Ship, as she was called,
ran upon a rock, and those in her were thrown into the water. William was
drowned in an attempt to save his sister, the Comtesse de la Perche. It is said that Henry never smiled again. A second
marriage brought him no children, so that the crown was left to his daughter
Matilda, known as the Empress Maud, who was recognized as heiress to the
kingdom of England and the duchy of Normandy. After she had lost her husband,
she married Geoffrey of Anjou, the son of the powerful crusader Fulk, who was known as Plantagenet, from the sprig of broom
which he always wore in his cap. Henry died in Normandy, in December 1135, but
his body was brought to England and buried, in the abbey of Reading, which he
had founded. He was a wise and powerful Sovereign, who loved war and the chase,
living mainly in the forests of Windsor and Woodstock. He left a number of
illegitimate children, the best loved of whom was Robert of Gloucester. He favored
science and learning, and encouraged the seminaries of Bec,
Canterbury, Oxford, and Winchester. Under his reign, good historians made their
appearance, and, although Latin was the common tongue amongst learned persons,
Norman-French came into use and took the place of Anglo-Saxon among the upper
classes.
While
Matilda was declared in Normandy to be the successor of Henry, matters took a
different turn in London. The Angevin husband of the empress was unpopular,
whereas Stephen, count of Blois, a son of Adela, the daughter of William the
Conqueror, who was the possessor of great wealth from his marriage with the
heiress of Eustace of Boulogne, was greatly beloved, and was supported by the
seneschal, Hugh of Bigod, by his own brother Henry,
bishop of Winchester, and by the majority of the people. He was crowned by the
archbishop of Canterbury on December 22, even before King Henry was buried. But
he had no capacity for government. It was said of him by a contemporary that he
was the mildest of men upon earth, the slowest to take offence and the readiest
to pardon, very easy of approach to the poor, and liberal of alms. He was
entirely unable to keep his barons in order, so that in his reign anarchy
triumphed and the poor were oppressed. The nobles, whether singly or combined,
were equal in strength to the king, and were therefore able to resist his
authority. As the law courts were impotent, war was the only resource.
The
consequences of this weak government were not long in showing themselves.
David, king of Scotland, Empress Maud’s uncle, invaded England, and was bought
off by the gifts of the earldom of Huntingdon to himself, and of Carlisle to his son. Robert of Gloucester, half-brother of Matilda, although he
took the oath of allegiance to Stephen, maintained an
armed neutrality, fortified by
the possession of the strong castle of Bristol. Stephen allowed the nobles to build castles all over
the country, filled with retainers who were no
better than robbers, who plundered
the country and burned the towns, so that the common people believed that “Christ and His saints
were asleep”. To secure his power, Stephen used the treasure
left by Henry to engage a force of mercenaries, wandering
soldiers, chiefly from Flanders
and Brabant, called Brabançons, assisted by others
from Brittany, commanded by the counts of Penthièvre and Richmond.
In 1137,
King David made another invasion of England, supported by a rising in the
south-west. He was, however, opposed by the aged Thurstan,
archbishop of York, who was carried through the army in a litter and so
inflamed the courage of the soldiers. Also, Walter Espè,
an old warrior with long hair and beard, addressed the host from a platform. A
battle was fought near Northallerton, called the
Battle of the Standard, from the appearance in it of the Italian caroccio. The
Scots were entirely defeated. But, in the treaty of Durham, which closed the
war, signed on April 9, 1138, Henry, the son of David, was invested with the
county of Northumberland. Stephen now alienated the church by his imprisonment
of Roger, bishop of Salisbury, and his nephew Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, who
had offended him by setting themselves up like the barons and building castles
in imitation of them. Even Henry of Winchester took the side of the clergy,
and, as legate of the pope, summoned a council at Winchester, which, however,
came to no conclusion. In 1139, Empress Maud landed, and was allowed by Stephen
to pass freely to Bristol, where she found an army levied by her half-brother,
Robert of Gloucester. In battle at Lincoln in 1141, Stephen was defeated, made
prisoner, and carried off to Bristol. In 1142, Maud was crowned at Winchester.
But she made herself unpopular by her strict government, and was compelled to
fly to Gloucester. Robert was taken prisoner by William of Ypres, and Henry,
who had crowned Maud, now returned to his brother’s side. The civil war
continued for six years with varying fortunes. The empress was nearly captured
at Oxford, and with difficulty escaped over fields covered with snow, and the
king nearly suffered the same fate. In the anarchy which ensued, the west of
England acknowledged Matilda, the east of England Stephen, the north of England
King David of Scotland, and the centre of England was divided amongst the great
earls. In 1147 Robert of Gloucester died, and the empress left England.
The
second crusade diverted the attention of the combatants to other matters;
Frederick Barbarossa became emperor, and Henry, Matilda’s son, married Eleanor
of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis VII of France. Henry now landed in England in 1153,
and by the efforts of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, and Henry of
Winchester, a treaty was signed at Wallingford, at which it was arranged that
Stephen should reign for the remainder of his life and be succeeded by Henry.
This was made easier by the fact that Eustace, a son of Stephen, had died in
the previous year. Stephen himself died shortly afterwards, on October 25,
1154.
Henry II
reigned for thirty-five years, from 1154 to 1189. He was a great European
prince, and the founder of the judicial and parliamentary systems of our
country. Of his four sons, two became kings of England, and of his three
daughters, Matilda, the eldest, married Henry the Lion of Saxony; the second,
Eleanor, the king of Castile; and the third, Johanna, William the Second, king
of Sicily. Besides the kingdom of England, Henry ruled over Normandy and Maine,
in right of his mother, Anjou and Touraine in right of his father, and Poitou, Saintonge, Limousin, Guienne, and Gascony in right of his wife, so that he
possessed a large portion of France. He was a man of great ability and untiring
energy. He had the merit, shared by other English kings, of recognizing that
the real foundation of his power was the welfare of the nation which he
governed. His reign may be divided into three periods. In the first, from 1154
to 1162, he succeeded in weakening the feudal government of the nobles and
establishing the royal authority. He destroyed what are called the “adulterine”
castles which had been built in the reign of Stephen; he sent out of the
country the foreign mercenaries whom Stephen had employed; and he resumed the
royal estates which had been alienated by his predecessor. Following a precedent
set by Henry I, he allowed his feudal barons to commute their yearly service
for a pecuniary payment called scutage, which, besides rendering the barons
less warlike, gave the king money with which he could hire mercenaries. He
levied it first in 1159 for the prosecution of a war in Toulouse. At this time
the papal see was held by Nicholas Breakspear, the
only Englishman who ever wore the tiara. He used the authority over islands
supposed to be a prerogative of the pope by investing Henry with Ireland, which
however, he had to conquer.
The
second period of Henry’s reign, which lasted from 1162 to 1172, was occupied by
his struggle with the church, his judicial reforms, and the conquest of
Ireland. In 1162, Thomas Becket was made archbishop of Canterbury, at the age
of forty-four. He was born in London, of Norman descent, and belonged to the
middle classes. He was educated at Merton Priory in Surrey, and at the
University of Paris, and then entered the service of Theobald, archbishop of
Canterbury. He was one of the most remarkable of Englishmen, and deserves the
reverence with which he has always been treated. He was extremely religious, an
able ruler, very lovable, but, at the same time, headstrong and impetuous. He
was made chancellor in 1154, and showed himself a good financier and an able
judge. He succeeded in upholding at the same time the dignity of his office and
the authority of the king. But when he became archbishop he transferred the
zeal which he had displayed for the crown to extend the privileges of the
church. When money was required for the war in Wales, Becket opposed Henry’s
attempt to appropriate a local tax called the “Sheriff's Aid”, the first
instance of opposition to the king's financial measures since the Conquest. In
1164, at the royal palace of Clarendon, near Salisbury, a document was passed,
called the Constitutions of Clarendon, recording in sixteen clauses what Henry
declared to be the English customs, of which the following are the most
important : —(1) The separate trial of the clergy by their own order was forbidden.
Those accused of crime were to answer the charge in the king’s court—to be tried,
indeed, in the ecclesiastical courts, but, if convicted, to be degraded and
sent to the king’s court for sentence. (2) In order to check the appeals of the
clergy to Rome, they were not allowed to leave the kingdom without the king’s licence. (3) All appeals from the ecclesiastical courts
were to go to the king, and were to be finally decided in the archbishop’s
court, unless the king allowed them to be taken to Rome. (4) All elections to
archbishoprics, bishoprics, abbacies, and priories were to be made by the
clergy in the king’s chapel and with his assent, and the person elected was to
do homage to the king before consecration. (5) The sons of villeins were not to be ordained without the consent of their lords. (6) No tenant in
chief of the king or member of his household was to be excommunicated or placed
under an interdict without the king’s knowledge.
After
some hesitation, Becket accepted these articles as binding on the church. But
he soon repented of his action. He shut himself up in his palace at Canterbury,
and refused to perform any priestly functions until Pope Alexander should order
him to resume them. The pope, however, denounced the new constitutions. Whom
was Becket to obey? In a case which now arose, he violated them by appealing to
the Holy See. He was condemned for this and other matters in a council held at Northampton,
and fled to France, carrying with him his pallium and his seal. Crossing from
Sandwich, he at length reached Gravelines on November
2, 1164. After visiting Pope Alexander III, he took up his abode in the
Cistercian abbey of Pontigny, which had been assigned
to him as a residence. From this refuge he was driven by the action of Henry.
After expressing his confidence that God, who fed the birds of heaven and
clothed the lilies of the field, would not desert him and his, he retired to
the monastery of St. Columba at Sens. The quarrel between the archbishop and
the king shook the courts of Europe, and efforts were made in every direction
to reconcile them. We have no space to relate the thrilling story. At length,
in 1170, when the king’s eldest son had been crowned by the archbishop of York,
to the disgust of Becket, who asserted his right to perform the ceremony—when
the French king, Louis VII, was offended that his daughter Margaret, young
Henry’s wife, had not been crowned with him, and there was danger of war—when
the pope threatened Henry with an interdict,—Henry, like a wise statesman,
yielded. A reconciliation took place between the two enemies in a meadow near
Tours, on July 22, and on December 1 Becket returned in triumph to his
cathedral at Canterbury.
But he
had many enemies, who declared that he had not returned in peace, but with fire
and sword, to make his brother bishops a footstool under his feet. Three of the
bishops went to France, found the king at the castle of Bures,
near Bayeux, and told him that he would have no peace so long as Becket was
alive. Henry broke out into wrath against the man who had eaten his bread, and
now trampled him under foot—whom he had covered with benefits, and who now
treated him and his house with scorn. “By what cowards”, he cried, “am I
surrounded! Is there no one who will rid me of this paltry priest?”. Four of
his nobles, fired by these words, immediately left for England by different
roads—Richard Fitzurse, “Son of the Bear”; Hugh of Moreville, a rich baron of Northumberland; William Tracy;
and Richard Brito. The king sent to call them back,
but it was too late. Becket had set out to visit young Henry at Woodstock,
taking with him three valuable horses as a present, but he heard in London that
the young king would not see him. He returned in wrath to Canterbury, preached
on Christmas Day, from the text “Peace on earth, good will towards men”, and
excommunicated all those who stirred up strife between him and the king. He
embittered the feelings of his enemies, and on December 29, 1170, was
barbarously murdered by the four knights in the cathedral. When the body was undressed,
they found it clothed with a hair shirt, and bearing traces of recent penance.
The people streamed to the scene of the murder, the very blood was reverenced
as holy, and Becket was proclaimed a saint by the acclamation of the throng
before he was canonised.
Before
this momentous scene, Henry had effected important constitutional changes. In
1166, the Assize of Clarendon had established in criminal cases the “Jury of
Presentment”, by which twelve men of rank and position swore to reveal all
guilty persons, but to accuse no man falsely, and which was the origin of our
present grand jury. By the Grand Assize, a jury of recognition was introduced
into civil cases, which was the origin of our petty jury. A freeholder who had
been deprived of his land might demand a “Jury of Recognition” to judge his
case. In 1215, when the ordeal was abolished as a method of trial, by the pope,
it became the duty of the Jury of Recognition to judge the cases brought
forward by the Jury of Presentment. Also, in 1169, steps were taken to reduce
to submission the island of Ireland, granted to Henry by the pope, which was
effected Conquest by the labors of Robert FitzStephen,
Richard of Ireland, FitzGilbert, better known as Strongbow, and Maurice FitzGerald. An opportunity had arisen
when Dermot, king of Leinster, was driven from his kingdom and sought help from
Henry. Dermot died in 1171, and Henry went to Ireland to receive the submission
of Strongbow, who had become too powerful. A council
was held at Cashel, by which the church of Ireland, which had hitherto been
independent, was brought under the authority of the pope. After this, the
population of Ireland was divided into three sections—the inhabitants of what
was called the Pale, that is, the district immediately around Dublin, who were
loyal to the English crown; the mixed Anglo-Irish, who dwelt in the open
country; and the wild and rebellious natives in the west. These three sections
were constantly at war with each other. After the conquest of Ireland, Henry
was reconciled with the pope, and was solemnly absolved at Avranches in 1172. He renounced ostensibly all new customs prejudicial to the church, but
in effect a compromise was made—even, at last, on the question of the trial of criminous clerks.
The last
eighteen years of Henry’s reign were clouded with sorrow. In 1173, three of his
sons—Henry, Richard, and Geoffrey—rose against him, assisted by their mother,
the Queen Eleanor, and by the king of France. Young Henry did not care to wear
the crown without having some regal authority; Richard and Geoffrey hoped for appanages in France; Eleanor was enraged against her
husband in consequence of his infidelity; and Louis VII would have been glad to
see the French and English possessions of the British crown in different hands.
Hugh Bigod and several of the earls took the side of
the rebels, and William the Lion, of Scotland, invaded the kingdom from the
north. Civil war raged on both sides of the Channel. Henry called mercenaries
to his aid, including the dreaded Brabançons. Battles
were fought at Dol in Brittany, and at Bury St. Edmund’s
in England. Henry became convinced that the only remedy for these evils, which
he regarded as a punishment for his own misdeeds, was to do penance at the
shrine of the martyr. So, on July 12, 1174, happily in the middle of summer,
after hearing a sermon from Gilbert, bishop of London, he went, clad in the
shirt of penance, into the crypt, was flogged on his naked back by the priests
and monks, and spent the night on the bare stones with prayers and tears. The
next day he heard mass, presented the cathedral with costly gifts, was absolved
from all his sins, and entered London with rejoicings. The penance soon
produced its effect. On the very day that it was completed, William the Lion
was defeated at the battle of Alnwick, and was taken
prisoner. Hugh Bigod submitted. The kings of France
and England made friends at Gisors. William the Lion,
released from prison, acknowledged the supremacy of the English crown over the
Scottish in the treaty of Falaise. Henry, accompanied
by his reconciled son, gave solemn thanks at the shrine of Becket for his
friendly interposition.
In 1176,
Henry set himself to continue his judicial reforms. The Assize of Clarendon was
amended by the Assize of Northampton, which divided England into six circuits and
established a system of travelling judges, which still continues. A famous
treatise on the laws of England was compiled, perhaps by the Chief Justiciar, Ranulf de Glanville.
The old curia regis was reorganized, five judges being separated from the general fisco-judicial staff in 1178, and required to remain always
in the King’s Court, and hear all cases brought before them; the authority of
the sheriffs was strengthened in the counties; and all the departments of
government were reformed. Henry obtained for himself so much reputation by
these reforms that, in 1177, he was chosen as arbitrator between the kings of
Castile and Navarre, who had long been disputing with regard to their
respective frontiers. In 1181, the Assize of Arms made regulations for the
national militia, known by the Saxon name of the Fyrd;
and in 1184 the Assize of the Forest laid down rules for the management of the
forest lands.
In 1183,
the young Henry began to rebel once more against his father, but on June 11 he
died suddenly at Marcel in Querci, the king sending
him the ring from his finger, in token of forgiveness. He was more of a
Frenchman than an Englishman, but was admired by both friend and foe for his
knightly virtues, and praised by the poets of both the south and the north.
After his death Henry liberated his wife Eleanor from prison, in which she had
been confined for ten years, and allowed her to come to Normandy. He might have
looked forward to a few years of happiness, had it not been for his extravagant
affection for his worthless son John, the stubborn temper of his son Richard,
and the treachery of Geoffrey, who joined King Philip Augustus, Louis VII’s
successor on the throne of France, in an attack on Normandy, but died suddenly
in Paris, a posthumous child, Arthur, being born to him on August 19, 1186.
In 1187
occurred the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, the effect of which we have
already described, and in the same year war broke out again between Henry and
Philip II. The expense of the new crusade was met by the imposition of the Saladin
tithe, already mentioned, which was the first tax on personal property. The war
still continued; Le Mans, Tours, and Samur fell into
the hands of the French; Brittany was in rebellion; John and Richard deserted
their father. Henry lay in the castle of Chinon,
broken in mind and body. He acknowledged himself to be the vassal of the king
of France, but when he saw that his son John was among the rebels he uttered a
curse against him and Richard, and gave up the ghost on July 6 : he was buried
in the monastery of Fontevrault. He was undoubtedly a
great king, as we have learnt from the relation of his life. We have said
nothing of his love for the fair Rosamund Clifford,
whose son Geoffrey became chancellor and bishop of Lincoln.
Notwithstanding the domestic troubles of his reign, he left England in every respect in a better condition than he found her. But the court was French, and, in order that England might acquire her self-consciousness and proceed on the course of orderly advance, it was necessary that she should lose her possessions in France. |