HISTORY OF ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO, 1680—1888

CHAPTER VI.

OÑATE’S CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO.

1595-1598.

 

 

Having chronicled in the preceding chapters all the various explorations of New Mexican territory from 1540 to 1596, together with several unsuccessful projects of colonization, I now come to the final success of another similar undertaking, to the actual conquest and occupation of the country accomplished by Don Juan de Oñate for the king of Spain, in 1598-9. While this achievement may properly be regarded as the most important in New Mexican annals, the corner-stone of the historic structure, its record has hitherto been left almost a blank. The early standard writers somewhat unaccountably gave but a brief and generally inaccurate outline of the conquest. Nearly all gave the date as 1595-6, fixing it by that of Oñate’s preparations, and greatly underestimating the delays that ensued; and only Mariana, the historian of Spain, seems to have given a correct date. The sum and substance of all these versions, rejecting errors, would be hardly more than a statement that in 1595 Oñate undertook the enterprise, and soon with the aid of Franciscan friars succeeded in occupying the province, and even made a tour to the Quivira region in the north-eastern plains.

That later writers, consulting only a part of these earlier authorities, should not have materially improved the accuracy and completeness of the record is not surprising. They have made a few slight additions from documentary sources; but they have retained for the most part the erroneous dates, and have introduced some new errors, the latest and best of them, Davis and Prince, having copied the blunder of some faulty document consulted, and moved the conquest backward to 1591. The real and original authorities—a book published in 1610, and documents obtained in modern times from the Spanish archives—are now utilized practically for the first time in writing the history of New Mexico. I say practically, because in the long interval between the writing and final revision of this chapter, a Spanish investigator has given to the public a résumé of the book referred to, and another in America has made known his acquaintance with the volumes containing the confirmatory documents.

The veritable authority for the events presented in this chapter is to be found in the shape of an epic poem, written by Captain Gaspar de Villagrá, one of Oñate’s companion conquistadores, and published only eleven years after the occurrence of the events narrated. This work, though by no means unknown to bibliographers, is very rare; and its historic value seems to have been concealed from the public until 1883. When I had occasion to consult its pages in 1877, I did so with an idea that it might furnish material for a brief note as a literary curiosity; but I found it a most complete narrative, very little if at all the less useful for being in verse. The subject is well enough adapted to epic narration, and in the generally smooth-flowing hendecasyllabic lines of Villagrá loses nothing of its intrinsic fascination. Occasionally the author quits the realm of poesy to give us a document in plain prose; and while enthusiastic in praise of his leader and his companions, our New Mexican Homer is modest in recounting his own exploits. Of all the territories of America—or of the world, so far as my knowledge goes—New Mexico alone may point to a poem as the original authority for its early annals. Not less remarkable is the historic accuracy of the muse in this production, or the long concealment of the book from the eye of students.

Viceroy Velasco on the failure of Urdiñola’s project, not favoring as we have seen that of Lomas, accepted the propositions of Juan de Oñate in the autumn of 1595. Don Juan was a rich and prominent resident of Zacatecas, son of the brave and popular conquistador Don Cristóbal; married to Doña Isabel, daughter of Juan de Tolosa, granddaughter of Hernán Cortés, and great-granddaughter of Montezuma; and was backed by the wealth, nobility, and power of Nueva Galicia. Oñate’s petition and contract are not extant; but the former with marginal notes of approval and dissent was seen by Gregg at Santa Fé; and his brief résumé, confirmed by incidental allusions in other documents, shows that the contract did not differ materially from the earlier ones that have been described. The empresario agreed to raise a force of 200 men or more at his own expense; but seems to have been furnished by the king with a considerable quantity of arms and ammunition, and even a sum of money, being also authorized to confiscate the property of Bonilla and other adventurers if he could catch them. He was made governor, adelantado, and captain-general of the territories to be colonized; and his somewhat extravagant claims for honors, titles, lands, and other emoluments were freely granted by Velasco so far as the royal instructions would permit.

The contract once signed, Don Juan, securing the support of the highest officials and most influential men of Mexico, Nueva Galicia, and Nueva Vizcaya, invoking the aid of his four brothers, and the four brothers Zaldívar, his nephews, and of other active friends, set about the task of recruiting an army, by no means a long or difficult one. The sargento mayor, Captain Vicente Zaldívar, unfurled his enlistment banner in the grand plaza of Mexico with a salute of artillery; the scenes of ’30 and ’40 under Guzman and Coronado were repeated; recruits came in from all directions, attracted by the favorable terms offered and the hope of wealth and fame in the north, and the ranks were soon full.

All was enthusiasm; success seemed assured; and preparations for an early departure were well-nigh completed, when a change of viceroys occurred in November, the count of Monterey succeeding Velasco. This in itself naturally caused some delay; but more serious causes were at work. Oñate’s brilliant prospects, and the unusual prerogatives granted him, had created jealousy; and his rivals and foes appear to have had more influence with the new viceroy than with the old one. Even before he reached the capital, Monterey asked for a delay; but after Velasco had explained the matter by letter, he consented to a completion of the arrangements. Arriving the 5th of November and taking possession of his office, he proceeded to investigate somewhat at his leisure the adelantado’s fitness for his position, and the truth of certain charges against him. The exact nature of the accusations is not revealed; but soon everybody seems to have had something to say against Don Juan and his enterprise; virtue, if we may credit the poet companion and eulogist, being in this instance well-nigh overpowered by calumny. A prominent element, however, in the new viceroy’s policy was his favor to one Pedro Ponce de León, who wished to undertake the conquista himself; at any rate, he wrote to the king on December 20th, asking that ratification of Oñate’s project be delayed until new information could be obtained. The poet’s narrative of these and latter complications is confirmed by documents from the Spanish archives.

At last the viceroy was induced to approve his predecessor’s contract with certain modifications, insisting particularly that Oñate should not, as he demanded, be independent of the audiencia in the administration of justice, or of the viceroy in war and finance. Preparations were now actively renewed for the march; but when the modifications alluded to became known to some members of the colony, whose privileges were more or less curtailed, a new storm of complaints and curses burst upon the leader’s head; and his foes took advantage of the occasion to renew their attacks. Oñate deemed it wiser to flee from than resist such foes; accordingly he made haste to begin his march northward. In Zacatecas a halt was made for final preparations. In June 1596, Lope de Ulloa y Lemos was commissioned by Monterey to make a visita general, or inspection and inventory. Ulloa was also instructed to remove the army from the settlements on account of certain complaints of disorderly conduct; and he began his inspection in July, appointing Francisco de Esquivel as assistant or comisario. This caused an annoying and seemingly needless delay from the poet’s point of view; but as the viceroy had already sent a friendly letter, assuring the governor that the visita was a mere formality, not based on any suspicion, no serious discontent resulted at this time, and soon the force moved on, a part to the Caxco, or Taxco, mines in Durango, and the rest still farther to the San Bartolomé valley.

About a year had now passed since the contract was signed, and the military colony had been considerably reduced during the delay. A courier was daily expected with marching orders, and at last he came, the 9th of September, with a sealed packet for Ulloa, which contained, as the general and all the army thought, the welcome order. Bitter was Oñate’s disappointment when the packet was found to be, instead, a royal order of May 8th, directing a suspension of the entrada until the receipt of further instructions, in consequence of the viceroy’s letter of the past December and the pending negotiations with Ponce de León. Enclosed was the viceroy’s letter of August 12th to Ulloa, instructing that officer to make known the king’s will, and to order Oñate, under the severest penalties, including a revocation of all past concessions, to make no further advance. In October came from Mexico a repetition of the order. The governor with a heavy heart thought of his past efforts, and of the 500,000 ducats already spent; but kissed the unwelcome pliego and promised to obey. He concealed the bad news from his army for a time, and joined in their festivities. He had no thought of giving up his enterprise; and Juan Guerra generously offered to bear a portion of the heavy expense to be entailed by this new delay, which was destined to last over a year.

It seems unnecessary to narrate in detail the history of this gloomy period. Soldiers were constantly deserting, and more than once utter failure seemed inevitable. One visita after another was ordered; but Oñate was able on each occasion to keep his force and supplies up to the standard of his contract. To his protests against the delay, and those of his brothers and friends, the viceroy, although professing the most friendly disposition, replied always that he could not act without royal orders. The adelantado’s foes wished of course to break up the expedition altogether, and at times such was the policy of the government as well; but at other times there seemed to be a desire to keep the force together until Ponce de Leon or some other royally favored individual could be in some way given the command. Padre Duran became discouraged and left the company with most of his friars in spite of all remonstrances. But amid all troubles, Oñate, if we may credit his somewhat partial biographer, stood firm as a rock, sustained by his friends, and by the influence of Doña Eufemia, the beautiful wife of Alferez Peñalosa, who publicly harangued the men, urging them to imitate the fortitude of their leader. Some were mutinous, and bent on going to New Mexico in spite of the king’s prohibition; but cutting off the head of their leader checked the ardor of this party.

Late in 1597 came orders to get ready, to submit to a final visita, and to start. The royal cédula of April 2d, on which these orders were founded, I have not seen. In September Juan Frias de Salazar was commissioned as visitador, Esquivel retaining his position as comisario, and in December, when the army had been reunited at the Santa Barbara mines, the final inspection began. If we follow Villagrá’s version, the expectation was that Oñate could not pass the inspection; and the viceroy even advised him not to attempt it but to disband his force. The general’s reply was that he would submit, not only to this visita, but to as many more as the government might choose to order; and he did submit, and successfully passed the ordeal. The viceroy states, however, that Salazar was secretly instructed to deal as leniently as possible with Oñate, disregarding small deficiencies; and the records show that there was a deficiency in both supplies and men, of whom only 130 remained. It was decided that the viceroy should raise 80 men at Oñate’s expense—Juan Guerra and his wife, Ana de Mendoza, becoming sureties; and about this number were indeed sent north the next year.

 

Oñate’s Route, 1598.

 

The final inspection having been concluded the 20th of January, 1598, the army started northward six days later, and on the 30th reached the Conchos. Spanish travellers in America never encamped if it were possible to avoid it, on the near, but always on the farther, side of a stream; therefore haste was made to cross; and the bustle and incidents of bridging and fording the river are vividly portrayed by our poet chronicler. They remained in camp on the Conchos for a week, getting rid of the visitador, who is said to have departed without bidding the colonists goodbye, but also having to part with Padre Marquez, their confessor. Arrangements had, however, been made for a new band of ten Franciscans; and these friars, under Padre Alonso Martinez, as comisario, came north with Captain Farfan and his party, who had escorted Padre Marquez on his return, and joined the army soon after the start.

The force that left the Conchos on the 7th of February is given by Salmeron and Niel, and implied by Villagrá, as 400 men, 130 of whom were accompanied by their families. The documentary records indicate only the 130 soldier colonists, besides a large number of servants and Indians: and it is difficult to understand how there could have been more whom Oñate could not utilize to make up the 200 of his contract. Don Cristobal de Oñate, son of Don Juan, accompanied the expedition as teniente de gobernador y capitán general, at the age of ten years! Juan de Zaldívar was maestro de campo; Don Vicente, his brother, sargento mayor; Captain Villagrá, procurador general; Captain Bartolomé Romeros, contador; Zubia, or Cubia, proveedor; and Juan Velarde and Juan Perez Donis, secretaries. I append a list of such names as I have found in the various records, well worth preserving, as including the first settlers of New Mexico; though unfortunately the full names and titles of all could not be made to fit the metre of the poetic version. There were 83 wagons in the train, and 7,000 head of cattle.

Instead of descending the Conchos as earlier explorers had done, Oñate seems to have taken a northward course to the Río Bravo. Two exploring parties were sent out in advance to find a way for the wagons, and Villagrá, who accompanied the sargento mayor, devotes more than two cantos of his work to a description of their adventures; and in the Itinerario the dates, distances, and names of successive points reached by the main army are given; but though this was the first exploration of northern Chihuahua, the details have no special interest in connection with our present subject except as appended in a note. Progress with the wagons was naturally slow, but there were no adventures or calamities. Captain Landin was despatched for Mexico with letters in the middle of March. On the 20th of April they reached the Río Grande. On the last day of the month, a few leagues up the river on the western bank, Oñate proceeded with all the complicated and curious ceremonial deemed essential in such cases, to take formal possession for God, the king, and himself, of New Mexico “and all the adjoining provinces,” as appears from the long and verbose act of possession duly certified by Juan Perez, the royal escribano, in the presence of the friars and all the army. There were also imposing religious ceremonies, including mass in a chapel built for the occasion, and a sermon by the padre comisario; and finally in the evening the performance of an original comedy written by Captain Far fan on a subject connected with the conquest of New Mexico—early days of the drama, indeed.

 

Alphabetic list of Oñate’s associates in the conquest of N. Mex.

Capt. Pablo de Aguilar

Araujo

Ascencio de Archuleta

Ayarde

Alf. Dionisio de Bañuelos

Bartol

Juan Benítez

Bibero

Capt. Juan Gutiérrez de Bocanegra

Juan Pérez de Bustillo

Cesar Ortiz Cadimo

Juan Camacho

Esteban Carbajal

Carrera

Juan de Caso

Alf. (Capt.) Bernabé de las Casas

Castillo

Juan Catalán

Cavanillas

Capt. Gregorio César Cordero

Alf. Juan Cortés

Marcos Cortés

Pedro Sánchez Damiero

Juan Diaz

Sec. Juan Pérez de Donis

Capt. Felipe Escalante

Juan Escarramal

Capt. Marcelo de Espinosa

Capt. Marcos Farfán de los Godos

Juan Fernández

Manuel Francisco

Alvaro García

Francisco García

Marcos García

Simón García

Luis Gascón

Bartolomé González

Juan González

Juan Griego

Guevara

Francisco Guillén

Antonio Gutiérrez

Alf. Gerón de Heredia

Antonio Hernández

Francisco Hernández

Gonzalo Hernández

Pedro Hernández

Antonio Conde de Herrera

Cristóbal de Herrera

Juan de Herrera

Alonzo Núñez de Hinojosa

León de Isasti

Jiménez

Capt. Diego Landín

Francisco de Ledesma

Alf. Juan de León

Domingo de Lizana

Cristóbal López

Juan López

Alonso Lucas

Lucio

Mallea

Francisco Márquez

Capt. Gerónimo Márquez

Hernán Martín

Juan Martínez

Juan Medel

Medina

Monroi

Alonso Gómez Montesinos

Baltasar de Monzón

Morales

Juan Morán

Munuera

Naranjo

Capt. Diego Núñez

Juan de Olague

Ten. Gen. Cristóbal de Oñate

Capt. Gen. Juan de Oñate

Juan de Ortega

Ortiz

Regundo Paladin

Simón de Paz

Juan de Pedraza

Alf. Pereyra

Simón Pérez

Capt. Juan Piñero

Alt. Fran, de Posa y Peñalosa

Capt. Alonso de Quesada

Fran. Guillén de Quesada

Martin Ramírez

Juan Rangel

Rascón

Pedro de los Reyes

Pedro de Ribera

Alonso del Rio 

Diego Robledo 

Francisco Robledo 

Pedro Robledo 

Pedro Rodríguez 

Sebastián Rodríguez 

Bartolomé Romeros 

Capt. Moreno de la Rúa

Capt. Ruiz 

Juan Ruiz 

Lorenzo Salado 

Juan de Salas 

Alonso Sánchez 

Cristóbal Sánchez 

Francisco Sánchez

Antonio Sariflana 

Juan de Segura 

Serrano

Sosa

Capt. Tabora

Capt. Francisco Vaca

Varela

Francisco Vasques

Jorge de la Vega

Sec. Juan Velarde

Francisco Vido

Juan de Victoria Vido

Capt. Gaspar de Villagrá

Villalba

Villaviciosa

Capt. Juan de Zaldívar

Capt. Vicente de Zaldívar

Alf. León Zapata

Prov. Zubia

Zumaia.

 

CHAPTER VII.

OÑATE’S CONQUEST CONTINUED.

1598-1599.