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READING HALLDOORS OF WISDOM |
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GEORGE FINLAY'SHISTORY OF GREECE FROM BC 146 TO 1864VOLUME IGREECE UNDER THE ROMANS.B.C. 146 — A.D. 716
CHAPTER III. The Reign of Justinian. A.D. 527— A.D. 665.
PREFACE TO GREECE UNDER THE ROMANS.
The social and political organization of life among the Greeks and Romans
was essentially different, even during the period when they were subject to the
same government; and this difference must be impressed on the mind, before the
relative state of civilization in the Eastern and Western Empires can be
thoroughly understood.
The Romans were a tribe of warriors. All their institutions, even those
relating to property and agriculture, were formed with reference to war. The
people of the Western Empire, including the greater part of Italy, consisted of
a variety of races, who were either in a low state of civilization at the time
of their conquest by the Romans, or else had been already subjected to
foreigners. They were generally treated as inferior beings, and the framework
of their national institutions was everywhere destroyed. The provincials of the
West, when thus left destitute of every bond of national union, were exposed to
the invasions of warlike tribes, which, under the first impulses of
civilization, were driven on to seek the means of supplying new wants. The
moment, therefore, that the military forces of the Roman government were unable
to repulse these strangers, the population of the provinces was exposed to
subjection, slavery, or extermination, according as the interests or the policy
of the invading barbarians might determine.
In that portion of the Eastern Empire peopled by the Greeks, the case was
totally different. There the executive power of the Roman government was
modified by a system of national institutions, which conferred, even on the
rural population, some control over their local affairs. The sovereign
authority was relieved from that petty sphere of administration and police,
which meddles with the daily occupations of the people. The Romans found this
branch of government completely organized, in a manner not closely connected
with the political sovereignty; and though the local institutions of the Greeks
proved less powerful than the central despotism of their conquerors, they
possessed greater vitality. Their nationality continued to exist even after
their conquest; and this nationality was again called into activity when the
Roman government, from increasing weakness, gradually began to neglect the
duties of administration.
But while the conquest of Greece by the Romans had indeed left the national
existence nearly unaltered, time, as it changed the government of Rome,
modified likewise the institutions of the Greeks. Still, neither the Roman
Caesars, nor the Byzantine emperors, any more than the Frank princes and
Turkish sultans, were able to interrupt the continual transmission of a
political inheritance by each generation of the Greek race to its successors;
though it is too true that, from age to age, the value of that inheritance was
gradually diminished, until in our own times a noble impulse and a desperate
struggle restored to the people its political existence.
The history of the Greek nation, even as a subject people, cannot be
destitute of interest and instruction. The Greeks are the only existing
representatives of the ancient world. They have maintained possession of their
country, their language, and their social organization, against physical and
moral forces, which have swept from the face of the earth all their early
contemporaries, friends, and enemies. It can hardly be disputed that the
preservation of their national existence is to be partly attributed to the
institutions which they have received from their ancestors. The work now
offered to the public attempts to trace the effects of the ancient institutions
on the fortunes of the people under the Roman government, and endeavours to
show in what manner those institutions were modified or supported by other
circumstances.
It was impossible, in the following pages, to omit treating of events
already illustrated by the genius of Gibbon. But these events must be viewed by
the historian of the Roman Empire, and of the Greek people, under very
different aspects. The observations of both may be equally true, though
inferior skill and judgment may render the views, in the present work, less
correct as a picture, and less impressive as a history. The same facts afford
innumerable conclusions to different individuals, and in different ages.
History will ever remain inexhaustible; and much as we have read of the Greeks
and Romans, and deeply as we appear to have studied their records, there is
much still to be learned from the same sources.
In the references to the authorities followed in this work, a preference
will often be shown to those modern treatises, which ought to be in the hands
of the general reader. It has often required profound investigation and long
discussion to elicit a fact now generally known, or to settle an opinion now
universally adopted, and in such cases it would be useless to collect a long
array of ancient passages.
CHRONOLOGY
B.C.
323. Death of Alexander. Lamian war
32 a. Antipater disfranchised 12,000 Athenian citizens
321. Ptolemy founds a monarchy in Egypt.
312. Era of Seleucidae.
310. Agathocles invades Carthaginian possessions in Africa.
303. Demetrius Poliorcetes raises siege of Rhodes.
300. Mithridates Ariobarzanes founds kingdom of Pontus.
280. Achaian league commenced.
Pyrrhus landed in Italy to
defend the Greeks against the Romans.
279. Gauls invade Greece, and are repulsed at Delphi.
278. Nicomedes brings the Gauls into Asia.
271. Romans complete the conquest of Magna Graecia.
260. Romans prepare their first fleet to contend with Carthage.
250. Parthian monarchy founded by Arsaces.
241. Attains, king of Pergamus.
228. First Roman embassy to Greece
218. Hannibal invades Italy.
212. Syracuse taken by Romans. Sicily conquered.
210. Sicily reduced to the condition of a Roman province.
202. Battle of Zama.
197. Battle of Cynoscephalae.
196. The Greeks declared free by Flamininus at the Isthmian games.
192. Antiochus the Great invades Greece.
188. The laws of Lycurgus abrogated by Philopoemen.
181. Death of Hannibal.
168. Battle of Pydna. End of Macedonian monarchy.
167. One thousand Achaian citizens sent as hostages to Rome.
155. The fine of 500 talents imposed on Athens for plundering the Oropians
remitted by the Romans.
147. Macedonia reduced to the condition of a Roman province.
146. Corinth taken by Mummius. Greece reduced to the condition of a Roman
province.
133. Rebellion of slaves in the Attic silver mines.
130. Asia, embracing great part of the country between the Halys and Mount
Taurus, constituted a Roman province.
96. Cyrenaica becomes a Roman possession by the will of Ptolemy Apion.
86. Athens taken by Sulla.
77. Depredations of the pirates on the coasts of Greece and Asia Minor at
their acme.
75. Bithynia and Pontus constituted a Roman province.
67. Crete conquered by Metellus after a war of two years and a-half, and
shortly after reduced to the condition of a Roman province. It was subsequently
united with Cyrenaica.
66. Monarchy of the Seleucidae conquered by Pompey.
65. Cilicia reduced to the condition of a Roman province.
48. Caesar destroys Megara.
44. Caesar founds a Roman colony at Corinth.
30. Augustus founds Nicopolis.
Egypt reduced to the condition of a Roman province.
25. Galatia and Lycaonia constituted a Roman province.
24. Pamphylia and Lycia constituted a Roman province.
21. Cyprus reduced to the condition of a Roman province. Athens deprived of its jurisdiction over
Eretria and Aegina, and the confederacy of the free Laconian cities formed by
Augustus.
14. Augustus establishes a Roman colony at Patrae.
A.D. Year of Rome 753. 194th Olympiad, 4th year, a.m. 5508 of the
Byzantines, called the Aera of Constantinople; but other calculations were
adopted at Alexandria and Antioch.
18. Cappadocia reduced to the condition of a Roman province.
22. The Roman senate restricts the right of asylum claimed by the Greek
temples and sanctuaries.
66. Nero in Greece.
67. Nero celebrates the Olympic Games.
72. Commagene reduced to a Roman province.
73. Thrace reduced to a Roman province by Vespasian. Rhodes, Samos, and
other islands on the coast of Asia deprived of their privileges as free states,
and reduced to the condition of a Roman province called the Islands.
74. Vespasian expels the philosophers from Rome.
90. Domitian expels the philosophers from Rome.
96. Apollonius of Tyana at Ephesus at the time of Domitian’s death.
98. Plutarch flourishes.
103. Epictetus teaches at Nicopolis.
112. Hadrian, archon of Athens.
1 15. Martyrdom of Ignatius.
122. Hadrian visits Athens.
125. Hadrian again at Athens.
129. Hadrian passes the winter at Athens.
132. Jewish war.
135. Hadrian is at Athens towards the close of the Jewish war.
143. Herodes Atticus consul.
162. Galen at Rome. Pausanias, Polyaenus, Lucian, and Ptolemy flourish.
168. Disgrace of Herodes Atticus at Sirmium.
176. Marcus Aurelius visits Athens and establishes scholarchs of the four
great philosophic sects.
180. Dio Cassius, Herodian, Athenaeus flourish.
212. Edict of Caracalla, conferring the Roman citizenship on all the free
inhabitants of the empire.
226. Artaxerxes overthrows the Parthian empire of the Arsacidae, and founds
the Persian monarchy of the Sassanidae.
238. Herodian, Aelian, Philostratus.
251. The emperor Decius defeated and slain by the Goths.
267. Athens taken by the Goths.
284. Aera of Diocletian, called Aera of the Martyrs.
312. ISt September. Cycle of Indictions of Constantine.
325. Council of Nicaea.
330. Dedication of Constantinople.
332. Cherson assists Constantine against the Goths.
337. Constantine II, Constantius, Constans, emperors.
355. Julian appointed Caesar.
361. Julian.
363. Jovian.
364. Valentinian I. Valens.
365. Earthquake in Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily.
375. Earthquake felt especially in Peloponnesus.
Gratian emperor.
378. Defeat and death of Valens.
379. Theodosius the Great
381. Second oecumenical council, at Constantinople.
394. Olympic Games abolished.
395. Arcadius and Honorius. Huns ravage Asia Minor. Alaric invades Greece.
398. Alaric governor of Eastern Illyricum.
408. Theodosius II.
425. University of Constantinople organized.
428. Genseric invades Africa.
431. Third oecumenical council, at Ephesus.
438. Publication of the Theodosian Code.
439. Genseric takes Carthage.
441. Theodosius II sends a fleet against Genseric.
442. Attila invades Thrace and Macedonia.
447. Attila ravages the country of Thermopylae.
Walls of Constantinople
repaired by Theodosius II.
449. Council of Ephesus, called the Council of Brigands.
450. Marcian.
451. Fourth oecumenical council, at Chalcedon.
457. Leo I, called the Great, and the Butcher.
458. Great earthquake felt from Antioch to Thrace.
460. Earthquake at Cyzicus.
465. Fire which destroyed parts of eight of the sixteen quarters of
Constantinople.
468. Leo I sends a great expedition against Genseric.
473. Leo II crowned.
474. Leo II. Zeno the Isaurian.
476. End of the Western Roman Empire.
477. Return of Zeno, twenty months after he had been driven from
Constantinople by Basiliskos.
480. Earthquakes at Constantinople during forty days.
Statue of Theodosius the
Great thrown from its column.
491. Anastasius I, called Dicorus.
499. Bulgarians invade the empire.
507. Anastasius constructs the long wall of Thrace.
514. Revolt of Vitalianus.
518. Justin I.
526. Death of Theodoric.
527. Justinian I.
Gretes, king of the Huns,
receives baptism at Constantinople.
The Tzans submit to the Roman
Empire.
528. Gordas, king of the Huns, on the Cimmerian Bosphorus, receives baptism
at Constantinople, and is murdered by his subjects on his return.
Justinian commences his
lavish expenditure on fortifications and public buildings.
529. First edition of the Code of Justinian.
Schools of philosophy at
Athens closed.
531. Battle of Callinicum. Death of Kobad, king of Persia.
Plague commenced which
ravaged the Roman Empire for fifty years.
532. Sedition of Nika.
Peace concluded with
Chosroes.
533- Conquest of the Vandal kingdom in Africa.
Institutions and Pandects
published.
534. Belisarius returns to Constantinople.
Second edition of the Code.
536. Belisarius takes Rome.
537. Siege of Rome by Goths under Witiges.
Dedication of St. Sophia.
538. Bulgarians invade the empire.
Famine in Italy.
539. Witiges besieged in Ravenna.
Huns plunder Greece to the
Isthmus of Corinth.
540. Surrender of Ravenna.
541. Totila king of the Groths.
Consulate abolished by
Justinian.
542. Great pestilence at Constantinople.
546. Rome taken by Totila.
547. Rome taken by Belisarius.
548. Belisarius quits Italy.
Death of Theodora.
549. Rome again taken by Totila.
Justinian’s armies occupy the
country of the Lazi.
550. Sclavonians and Huns invade the empire,
551. Silkworm introduced into the Roman Empire.
552. Totila defeated. Rome retaken by Narses.
553. Fifth oecumenical council at Constantinople.
554. Earthquakes at Constantinople, Nicomedia, Berytus, and Cos.
Church of Cyzicus fell during
divine service.
557. Terrible earthquake at Constantinople. Justinian did not wear his
crown for forty days.
558. Zabergan, king of the Huns, defeated near Constantinople by
Belisarius.
562. Treaty of peace with Persia. Belisarius accused of treason.
563. Belisarius restored to his rank.
565. March — death of Belisarius.
13th Nov.— death of Justinian in the thirty-ninth year of his reign. Justin II.
567. Kingdom of Gepids destroyed by Lombards.
568. Lombards invade Italy.
569. Justin sends the embassy of Zemarchos to the Turks.
571. Mahomet born. Weil says he died in 632, at the age of 63 lunar years,
which places his birth in April 571.
572. War between the Roman Empire and Persia.
574. Tiberius defeated by the Avars.
Tiberius proclaimed Caesar by
Justin.
576. Battle of Melitene. Romans penetrate to Caspian Sea.
578. Death of Justin II. Tiberius II.
579. Death of Chosroes.
581. Persian army defeated by Maurice in his fourth campaign.
582. 14th Aug. — death of Tiberius. Maurice.
John the Faster, patriarch of
Constantinople, uses the title Ecumenic, granted to the patriarch by Justinian.
589. Incursions of the Avars and Sclavonians into Greece. From this time
Sclavonian colonies were settled in the Peloponnesus.
590. Maurice crowns his son Theodosius at Easter. Hormisdas, king of
Persia, dethroned and murdered.
591. Chosroes II restored to the Persian throne by the assistance of
Maurice.
Maurice marches out of
Constantinople against the Avars.
600. Maurice fails to ransom the Roman prisoners.
602. Rebellion of the army. Phocas proclaimed emperor.
603. Persian war commences.
608. Priscus, the son-in-law of Phocas, invites Heraclius.
609. Persians lay waste Asia Minor, and reach Chalcedon.
610. Phocas slain. Heraclius.
613. Heraclius Constantine, or Constantine III., crowned 22nd Jan.; he was
born 3rd May 612.
614. Jerusalem taken by the Persians, and Church of the Holy Sepulchre
burned.
615. Heraclius sends the patrician Niketas to seize the wealth of John the
Charitable, patriarch of Alexandria.
616. Persians invade Egypt
617. Persians occupy Chalcedon with a garrison.
618. Public distribution of bread at Constantinople commuted for a payment
in money preparatory to its abolition.
619. Avars attempt to seize Heraclius at a conference for peace.
620. Peace concluded with the Avars.
621. Great preparations for carrying on the Persian war.
622. Monday, 5th April — Heraclius left Constantinople and proceeded by sea
to Pylae. He collected troops from the provinces, and exercised his army. He
advanced to the frontiers of Armenia, and made dispositions to winter in
Pontus, but suddenly advanced through Armenia into Persia. The Persians made a
diversion against Cilicia, but, on Heraclius continuing his advance, turned and
pursued him. Heraclius gained a battle, and placed his army in winter quarters
in Armenia. 16th July — Aera of the Hegira of Mahomet.
623. 25th March — Heraclius left Constantinople, joined the army in
Armenia, and was in the Persian territory by the 20th April. Chosroes rejects
terms of peace, and Heraclius takes Ganzaca and Thebarmes. Chosroes fled by the
passes into Media, and Heraclius retired to winter in Albania.
Death of Sisebut, king of
the Visigoths, who had conquered the Roman possessions in Spain.
624. Chosroes sends an army, under Sarablagas and Perozites, to guard the
passes by which Heraclius was likely to invade Persia; but the emperor, making
a long circuit by the plains, engaged Sarablagas before he was joined by
Sarbaraza, and gained the battle. Sarbaraza, and then Saen, are also defeated.
The Lazes and Abasges abandoned Heraclius in this campaign. Heraclius
wintered in the Persian territory. This was a campaign of marches and
counter-marches in a mountainous country, and Heraclius was opposed by greatly
superior forces, who succeeded in preventing his advance into Persia.
625. Heraclius resolves to return into the south-eastern part of Asia
Minor. From his winter quarters there were two roads — a short mountain-road by
Taranton, where nothing could be found for the troops; a longer road, by the
passes of Mount Taurus, where supplies could be obtained. After a difficult
march of seven days over Taurus, Heraclius crossed the Tigris, marched by
Martyropolis to Amida, where he rested, and despatched a courier to
Constantinople. As the Persians were following, Heraclius placed guards in the
passes, crossed the Nymphius, and reached the Euphrates, where he found the
bridge of boats withdrawn. He crossed by a ford, and passed by Samosata over
Mount Taurus to Germanicia and Adana, where he encamped between the city and
the bridge over the Saros. Sarbaraza advances to the Saros, and, after a
battle, retires. Heraclius advances to Sebaste, crosses the Halys, and puts his
army into winter quarters. Chosroes plunders the Christian churches in Persia,
and compels all Christians in his dominions to profess themselves Nestorians.
626. The scholarians make a tumult at Constantinople because they are
deprived of the bread which had previously been distributed. John Seismos
attempts to raise the price of bread from three to eight pholles.
Constantinople besieged by the Avars from 29th July to 8th August.
A Persian army under Sarbaraza occupies Chalcedon. Another under Saen is
defeated by Theodore, the emperor’s brother. Heraclius stations himself in
Lazica, and waits until he is assured of the defeat of the Avars before
Constantinople, and the passage of the Caspian gates by an army of Khazars
under Ziebel. Meeting of Heraclius and Ziebel took place near Tiflis, which was
occupied by a Persian garrison. The Khazars furnish Heraclius with 40,000
troops.
The church of Blachernes is enclosed within the fortifications of the city
by a new wall.
627. Heraclius appears to have derived little advantage from the assistance
of the 40,000 Khazars, unless we suppose that by their assistance he was able
to render himself master of Persarmenia and Atropatene. They quitted him during
the year 627.
9th October — Heraclius entered the district of Chamaetha, where he
remained seven days, 1st December — Heraclius reached the greater Zab, crossed
and encamped near Nineveh.
Rhazetas quitted his station at Ganzaca, and pursued Heraclius — crossed
the greater Zab by a ford three miles lower down than Heraclius passed it.
Battle in which Rhazetes was defeated on Saturday, 12th December. Sarbaraza
recalled from Chalcedon to oppose the advance of Heraclius, who occupied
Nineveh, and passed the greater Zab again.
23rd December — Heraclius passed the lesser Zab, and rested several days in
the palace of Jesdem, where he celebrated Christmas.
628. 1st January — Heraclius passed the river Toma, took the palace of
Beglali with its parks, and Dastagerd, where Chosroes had resided for
twenty-four years and accumulated great treasures.
Heraclius recovered three hundred standards taken by the Persians from the
Romans at different times, and passed the feast of Epiphany (6th January) at
Dastagerd. He quitted Dastagerd on the 7th, and in three days reached the
neighbourhood of Ctesiphon, and encamped twelve miles from the Arba, which he
found was not fordable. He then ascended the Arba to Siazouron, and spent the
month of February in that country. In March he spent seven days at Varzan,
where he received news of the revolution which had taken place, and that Siroes
had dethroned his father. Heraclius then retired from the neighbourhood of
Ctesiphon by Siarzoura, Chalchas, Jesdem. He passed mount Zara (Zagros), where
there was a great fall of snow during the month of March, and encamped near
Ganzaca, which had then three thousand houses.
3rd April — An ambassador of Siroes arrived at the camp of Heraclius. Peace
concluded. 8th April — Heraclius quitted his camp at Ganzaca.
15th May — His letters announcing peace were read in the church of St.
Sophia at Constantinople.
629. Death of Siroes, or Kabad, succeeded by his son Ardeshir.
Heraclius visits Jerusalem,
and restores the Holy Cross to the keeping of the patriarch.
630. Heraclius at Hierapolis occupied with ecclesiastical reforms.
632. Death of Mahomet, 7th or 8th June.
Aera of Yesdedjerd, 15th
August
633. The chronology of the Saracen campaigns in Syria is extremely
uncertain. The accounts of the Greek and Arabian writers require to be adjusted
by the sequence of a few events which can be fixed with accuracy.
Bosra besieged, and perhaps it was taken early in the following year.
Abubekr was occupied, for some time after the death of Mahomet, in reducing
the rebellious Arabs to submission, and in subduing several false prophets.
634. 30th July— Battle of Adjnadin.
22nd August — Death of Abubekr.
September — Battle of Yerrauk (Hieromax). Omar was already proclaimed
caliph in the Syrian army.
635. Damascus taken after a siege of several months. The siege commenced
after the battle of Yermuk.
Heraclius, taking the Holy Cross with him, quitted Syria, and retired to
Constantinople.
636. Various towns on the sea-coast taken by the Saracens, and another
battle fought
Vahan, the commander of the
Roman army, appears to have been proclaimed emperor in this or the preceding
year.
637. Capitulation of Jerusalem. The date of Omar’s entry into Jerusalem and
of the duration of the siege are both uncertain.
638. Invasion of Syria by a Roman army from Diarbekr, which besieges Emesa,
but is defeated.
Antioch taken. —
639. Jasdos takes Edessa and conquers Mesopotamia. —
December — Amrou invades
Egypt.
640. The 19th Hegira began 2nd January 640.
The Caliph Omar orders a
census of his dominions.
Cairo taken. Capitulation of
Mokaukas for the Copts.
641. February or March — Death of Heraclius. His reign of 30 years, 4
months, 6 days, would terminate 10th February.
Heraclius Constantine reigned 103 days, to 24th May.
Heracleonas sole emperor less than five months.
October — Constans II.
December — Alexandria taken by Saracens, retaken by Romans, and recovered
by Saracens.
643. Omar rebuilds or repairs the temple of Jerusalem.
Canal of Suez restored by
Amrou.
644. Death of Omar.
647. Saracens drive Romans out of Africa, and impose tribute on the
province.
Moawyah invades Cyprus.
648. Moawyah besieges Aradus, and takes it by capitulation.
Constans II publishes the
Type.
653. Moawyah takes Rhodes, and destroys the Colossus.
654. Pope Martin banished to Cherson.
655. Constans II defeated by the Saracens in a great naval battle off Mount
Phoenix in Lycia.
656. Othman assassinated, 17th June.
658. Expedition of Constans II against the Sclavonians.
Peace concluded with
Moawyah.
659. Constans II puts his brother Theodosius to death.
661. Murder of Ali, 22nd January.
Constans II quits
Constantinople, and passes the winter at Athens.
662. Saracens ravage Romania (Asia Minor), and carry off many prisoners.
663. Constans II visits Rome.
668. The Saracens advance to Chalcedon, and take Amorium, where they leave
a garrison; but it is soon retaken.
Constans II assassinated at Syracuse,
Constantine IV (Pogonatus).
669. The Saracens carry off 180,000 prisoners from Africa.
The troops of the Orient
theme demand that the brothers of Constantine IV should receive the imperial
crown, in order that three emperors might reign on earth to represent the
Trinity in heaven.
670. Saracens pass the winter at Cyzicus.
671. Saracens pass the winter at Smyrna and in Cilicia.
672. Constantine IV prepares ships to throw Greek fire on the Saracens, who
besiege Constantinople.
673. Saracens, who have wintered at Cyzicus, penetrate into the port of
Constantinople, and attack Magnaura and Cyclobium, the two forts at the
continental angles of the city.
Saracens again pass the
winter at Cyzicus
674. Third year of the siege of Constantinople.
Saracen troops pass the
winter in Crete.
677. Sixth year of the siege of Constantinople.
The Mardaites alarm the Caliph
Moawyah by their conquests on Mount Lebanon.
Thessalonica besieged by the
Avars and Sclavonians.
678. Seventh year of the siege of Constantinople.
The Saracen fleet destroyed by
Greek fire invented by Callinicus.
Bulgarians found a monarchy
south of the Danube, in the country still called Bulgaria.
Peace concluded with the
Caliph Moawyah.
679. War with the Bulgarians.
680. Death of the Caliph Moawyah.
Sixth general council of the
church.
681. Heraclius and Tiberius, the brothers of Constantine IV, are deprived
of the imperial title.
684. The Caliph Abdalmelik offers to purchase peace by the payment of an
annual tribute of 365,000 pieces of gold, 365 slaves, and 365 horses.
685. September — Death of Constantine IV (Pogonatus).
Justinian II ascends the
throne, aged sixteen.
686. Treaty of peace between the emperor and the caliph.
687. Emigration of Mardaites.
The Sclavonians of Strymon carry their piratical expeditions into the
Propontis.
689. Justinian II forces the Greeks to emigrate from Cyprus.
691. Defeat of Justinian II, and desertion of the Sclavonian colonists.
692. General council of the church in
Trullo,
The haratch established by
the caliph.
695. Justinian II deposed and his nose cut off, and he is banished to
Cherson.
Leontius emperor.
697. Saracens carry off great numbers of prisoners from Romania (Asia
Minor).
First doge of Venice elected.
Carthage taken by the Romans,
and garrisoned.
698. Carthage retaken by the Saracens.
Leontius dethroned and his
nose cut off.
Tiberius III (Apsimar),
emperor.
703. Saracens defeated in Cilicia by Heraclius, the brother of Tiberius
III.
705- Justinian II (Rhinotmetus) recovers possession of the empire.
708. The Saracens push their ravages to the Bosphorus.
709. Moslemah transports 80,000 Saracens from Lampsacus into Thrace.
710. Ravenna and Cherson treated with inhuman cruelty by Justinian II.
711. Justinian II dethroned and murdered.
Philippicus emperor.
713. Philippicus dethroned, and his eyes put out.
Anastasius II emperor.
716. Anastasius II dethroned.
Theodosius III emperor.
Leo the Isaurian relieves
Amorium, concludes a truce with Moslemah, and is proclaimed emperor by the
army.
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